UC-NRLF 


SB    54b    317 


HINTS    AND    NOTES 


FOR 


TRAVELLERS    IN    THE    ALPS 


ALPINE     CLUB     EDITION 


LONGMANS,     GREEN,     AND     CO 

lik     ROW,     LONDON 
W    YORK    AN'Ii    BOMBAY 
1899 


k«lK*. 


REQUISITES  JjMMHOUNTAINEERS. 

S.  W.  SILVER  &  CO. 

COBITHILL,    LOlsTIDOlsr. 

SPECIAL    LIST    ON    APPLICATION. 


RUCKSACS,    SLEEPING-BAGS,   TENTS. 

'INSECT-PUZZLERS'   (TUCKETT   PATTERN). 

Cooking  Stoves.  Filters. 

Snow  Spectacles.  Ice  Axes.  Alpine  Rope,  &c. 

SELF-COOKING    SOUPS,    &c. 

SPECIALITIES  &  PATENT  ARTICLES  for  TRAVELLERS  &  EXPLORERS. 
Illustrated  Catalogues  and  Particulars  on  application  to 

S.  W.  SILVER  &  CO.  &  BENJN.  EDGINGTON,  Ltd. 
67  CORNHILL,  &  2  DUKE  ST.,  LONDON,  E.C. 


BEALE  &  CLOVES 

(Late  JOHN  BUCKINGHAM), 
194  SHAFTESBURY  AVENUE,    LONDON,  W.C. 

ARE   THE   ONLY   MAKERS   OF   THE   CELEBRATED 

ALPINE  CLUB  ROPE, 

Which  is  almost  exclusively  employed  by  the  Leading  Mountaineers 
of  the  time.  This  Rope  (approved  by  the  Committee  of  the  English 
Alpine  Club)  is  made  of  the  best  Manilla  hemp,  and  is  marked  by  a 
red  worsted  Thread  twisted  with  the  strands  (see  the  report  of  the  Special 
Committee  on  Ropes,  &c,  in  Vol.  I.,  No.  7,  of  the  Alpine  Journal), 
and  it  can  be  obtained  only  from  the  makers. 

PRICE   LISTS   AND    FURTHER   PARTICULARS    UPON    APPLICATION. 

BEALE^TCLOVES 

(Late  JOHN  BUCKINGHAM), 
194  SHAFTESBURY   AVENUE,   LONDON,  W.C. 

BE  WARE  OF  FRA  UD  ULENT IMITA  TIONS. 


ill  kPIIUi 


GENERAL     INTRODUCTION 

TO   THE 

'ALPINE    GUIDE' 


ALPINE 
TRAVELLERS 

SHOULD, 

BEFORE  PURCHASING  A    CAMERA, 


J.  H.  DALLMEYER,  Ltd., 

WHO   ARE   SPECIALISTS   IN   APPARATUS   FOR 

LONG  DISTANCE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Manufacturers  of 

TELEPHOTOGRAPHIC  LENSES.     High  or  Moderate  Power. 
TELEPHOTO  ATTACHMENTS  for  Ordinary  Lenses. 
LONG   FOCUS  LANDSCAPE  LENSES,  and 

The   Celebrated  STIGMATIG    LENSES, 

Giving  Three  Sizes  of  Image  from  the  same  standpoint ; 

ALSO 

Special  Long-Extension  Hand  or  Stand  Cameras. 


New  Combination  Hand  and  Stand  Camera  for  Long  Range 
Photography  (also  available  fop  Wide  Angle  Lenses). 

ILLUSTRATED    CATALOGUES    AND    ESTIMATES    FREE. 

J.  H.  DALL  MEYER    LTD->   ®ptical  ^a™f~ctor_: 
ill  Hi  UftLLITILILII;  L  25  Newman  Street, 

_ LONDON,  Wm 


HINTS     AND     NOTES 

PRACTICAL    AND     SCIENTIFIC 

FOR 

TRAVELLERS    IN    THE    ALPS 


BEING    A     REVISION    OF    THE 
GENERAL    INTRODUCTION    TO     THE    'ALPINE    GUIDE' 


BY    THE    LATE 

JOHN    BALL,    F.R.S.   &c. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE    ALPINE   CLUB 


A     NEW     EDITION 
PREPARED    ON    BEHALF    OF    THE    ALPINE    CLUB 

BY 

W.  A.  B.  COOLIDGE 

FELLOW  OF    MAGDALEN    COLLEGE,   OXFORD 
AND   FORMERLY   EDITOR  OF  THE    '  ALPINE  JOURNAL* 


LONGMANS,     GREEN,    AND    CO. 

39    PATERNOSTER     ROW,    LONDON 

NEW    YORK    AND    BOMBAY 

1899 

All    rights    reserved 


S3 


PREFACE 

TO 

THE     PRESENT     EDITION. 


In  this  edition  all  the  old  articles  that  have  been  retained  have  been 
very  carefully  revised — that  on  the  '  Geology  of  the  Alps '  having, 
indeed,  been  practically  rewritten  by  Professor  Bonney,  while  that  on 
the  '  Climate  and  Vegetation  of  the  Alps '  has  been  much  expanded 
by  Mr.  Percy  Groom.  One  article  ('  Hypsometry ')  of  the  old  edition 
has  been  omitted,  as  the  publication  of  the  great  Government  Surveys 
has  now  rendered  it  superfluous.  Two  new  articles  have  been 
added— '  Photography  in  the  High  Alps,'  by  Mr.  Sydney  Spencer, 
and  '  Life  in  an  Alpine  Valley/  by  myself.  Of  the  two  appendices 
one  ('  List  of  Books  and  Maps  relating  to  the  Alps ')  is  an  extension 
and  enlargement  of  a  list  previously  given,  while  the  other  ('  A 
Glossary  of  Alpine  Terms')  has  been  compiled  by  myself  from 
many  sources.  It  is  hoped  that  both  may  be  found  of  use,  though 
neither  makes  any  pretensions  to  exhaustive  completeness. 

The  title  of  the  book  has  been  slightly  altered,  and  the  articles 
rearranged  in  what  seems  to  be  a  better  order. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  all  those  who  have  helped  me,  in  various 
ways,  in  preparing  this  new  edition. 

The  Preface  to  the  first  edition  (and  indeed  to  the  whole  work) 
is  so  interesting  and  characteristic  that  its  historical  importance 
warrants  me  in  reprinting  it  with  three  slight  omissions,  while 
brackets  indicate  later  alterations  and  additions,  as  they  appear  in 
the  1875  edition. 


VHl  INTRODUCTION. 

In  the  first  edition  (1863)  of  the  first  volume  ('  Western  Alps  ')  of 
the  '  Alpine  Guide  '  the  '  General  Introduction '  was  prefixed  to  the 
text,  and  immediately  followed  by  *  Supplementary  Notes '  relating 
exclusively  to  the  Western  Alps.  But  in  the  first  edition  (1864)  of  the 
second  volume  ('  Central  Alps ')  the  '  General  Introduction '  was 
omitted  (being  published  in  1864  as  a  separate  pamphlet),  while  the 
'  Preliminary  Notes '  relate  to  the  Central  Alps  only.  This  plan  of 
separating  the  general  and  special  portions  of  the  Introduction  seems 
to  have  proved  the  more  convenient.  Hence,  in  the  second  edition 
(1866)  of  the  first  volume  ('Western  Alps'),  the  *  General  Introduction' 
is  omitted,  a  slip  referring  readers  to  the  separate  pamphlet  in  which 
it  was  then  contained,  while  the  '  Supplementary  Notes'  of  1863 
have  become  *  Preliminary  Notes  to  the  Western  Alps.'  In  this  way 
the  '  General  Introduction  '  (now  reissued  in  a  revised  form)  and  the 
special  '  Preliminary  Notes '  relating  to  the  great  divisions  of  the 
Alps,  though  originally  closely  connected,  have  since  1864  been 
separate  and  distinct.  In  1898  the  new  edition  of  the  'Western 
Alps '  was  prefaced  by  a  new  edition  of  its  special  '  Preliminary 
Notes,'  and  it  is  proposed  to  adopt  a  similar  plan  in  the  case  of  the 
new  edition  of  the  *  Central  Alps,'  now  in  preparation. 

W.  A.  B.  Coolidge. 
Grindelwald  :  April  1899. 


PREFACE 


TO 


THE     FIRST     EDITION     (1863). 


A  just  distinction  has  been  drawn  between  travellers  who  visit 
foreign  countries  with  the  object  of  gaining  and  communicating 
knowledge,  and  tourists  who  go  from  place  to  place  seeking  amuse- 
ment and  change  of  scene,  but  without  any  more  definite  scope  than 
to  gratify  a  superficial  curiosity.  The  line  of  distinction  between 
these  two  classes,  which  was  easily  drawn  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago, 
is  nowadays  less  definitely  marked.  The  all  but  universal  taste  for 
travelling  has  spread  at  a  time  when  increased  knowledge  and  a  more 
lively  interest  in  physical  science  have  become  diffused  throughout 
the  educated  classes  in  our  own  and  other  countries.  Most  men  of 
cultivated  minds  occasionally  seek  relaxation  in  travelling,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  tourists  have  sufficient  knowledge  to  take  an 
intelligent  interest  in  some,  or  it  may  be  in  several,  departments  of 
science  or  art  naturally  connected  with  the  country  through  which 
they  pass. 

These  remarks  especially  apply  to  travellers  in  the  Alps.  The 
day  is  past  when  it  could  be  thought  necessary  to  apologise  for  or 
explain  the  prevalence  of  a  love  for  mountain  travelling.  It  is  a 
simple  fact  that,  especially  in  our  own  country,  thousands  of  persons 
have  learned  to  regard  this  as  a  sovereign  medicine  for  mind  and 
body,  and  to  feel  that  the  weeks  or  months  devoted  to  it  are  the 
periods  of  life  most  full  of  true  enjoyment,  and  those  that  leave  the 
most  abiding  impressions.     The  fact  that  the  scenery  of  the  Alps  is 


x  INTRODUCTION. 

unsurpassed  elsewhere  in  the  world  for  the  union  of  grandeur,  beauty, 
and  variety,  and  that  it  is  accessible  with  a  trifling  expenditure  of 
time  and  money,  naturally  accounts  for  the  constantly  increasing 
influx  of  strangers. 

As  high  mountain  countries,  and  the  Alps  in  particular,  abound 
with  phenomena  new  and  striking  to  the  intelligent  observer,  there 
is  a  constant  increase  in  the  number  of  those  who,  without  under- 
taking systematic  research,  are  led  to  desire  further  information 
respecting  the  structure  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  causes  that 
have  uplifted  the  mountain  ranges,  or  the  laws  that  regulate  the  cir- 
culation of  heat  and  moisture,  which  maintain  what  may  be  called 
the  inanimate  life  of  our  planet,  or  the  animal  and  vegetable  forms 
that  exhibit  in  apparently  inhospitable  regions  so  rich  a  variety. 

In  addition  to  these  objects  of  interest,  there  is  a  simpler  branch 
of  enquiry  which  especially  recommends  itself  to  many  of  our  active 
and  energetic  countrymen.  Many  parts  of  the  Alps  are  very  difficult 
of  access,  and  but  a  few  years  ago  there  were  many  considerable  dis- 
tricts whose  highest  peaks  had  never  been  attained,  which  were  not 
known  to  be  traversed  by  practicable  passes,  and  of  which  none  but 
slight  and  imperfect  information  was  anywhere  accessible.  To 
explore  these  little-known  districts,  to  scale  the  higher  summits,  and 
to  discover  passes  that  should  connect  valleys  that  are  separated 
by  lofty  ranges,  have  been  the  pursuits  of  the  members  of  the 
Alpine  Club. 

Without  exaggerating  the  importance  of  the  work  achieved,  it  is 
impossible  to  deny  that  a  remarkable  degree  of  enterprise  and  energy 
has  been  exhibited  by  many  of  the  members  of  that  association  in 
accomplishing  work  which,  if  not  actually  scientific,  is  certainly  con- 
ducive to  the  progress  of  science.  They  cannot  indeed  rival  the 
men  who,  following  the  illustrious  example  of  Saussure,  have  explored 
the  Alps  with  the  definite  object  of  enlarging  the  bounds  of  science  ; 
but,  in  achieving  the  preparatory  task  of  opening  the  way  through 
many  of  the  least  accessible  parts  of  the  Alpine  chain,  they  have  un- 
doubtedly surpassed  the  performances  of  all  their  predecessors. 
[Their  example  has  not  been  without  influence  in  other  countries,  and 
the  formation  of  kindred  associations  in  Switzerland,  Austria,  Italy, 
and  France  has  given  additional  impulse  to  the  spirit  of  Alpine  ex- 
ploration and  enquiry.] 


PREFACE  TO  THE   FIRST  EDITION.  xi 

It  has  for  some  time  been  felt  that  the  time  had  come  for 
attempting  to  supply  to  Alpine  travellers  a  guide-book  differing  in 
many  respects  from  those  hitherto  in  use,  and  the  writer  has  been 
urged,  by  some  of  those  most  capable  of  contributing  to  such  a  work, 
to  undertake  the  task.  He  has  no  claim  to  a  brilliant  share  in  the 
adventurous  performances  of  his  friends  and  fellow-members  of  the 
Alpine  Club  ;  his  qualifications,  such  as  they  are,  arise  rather  from  a 
somewhat  prolonged  and  extensive  acquaintance  with  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  Alps,  in  the  course  of  which  he  has  crossed  the  main  chain 
more  than  sixty  times  by  forty  different  passes,  besides  traversing 
more  than  one  hundred  and  seventy  of  the  lateral  passes. 

This  work  differs  from  most,  if  not  all,  of  its  predecessors  in  its 
plan,  which  is  designed  to  include  the  entire  region  of  the  Alps.  In 
regard  to  certain  districts  the  available  information  is  incomplete,  but 
the  arrangement  is  such,  that  the  omissions  may  be  easily  supplied 
hereafter.  Besides  the  preliminary  matter  contained  in  the  Introduc- 
tion, a  variety  of  notes  and  indications  connected  with  geology  and 
botany  are  scattered  through  the  body  of  the  work,  with  a  view  to 
direct  and  guide  those  who  feel  an  interest  in  those  subjects. 
Detailed  notices  of  the  vegetation  would  occupy  too  much  space,  and 
the  botanical  indications  have  for  the  most  part  been  confined  to 
pointing  out  localities  for  the  rarest  species,  chiefly  from  the  writer's 
personal  observation. 

[In  the  arrangement  of  this  work  it  soon  became  clear  that  it  would 
not  conduce  to  the  convenience  of  travellers,  nor  to  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  topography  of  the  Alpine  chain,  that  the  writer  should 
be  guided  by  political  boundaries.  These,  as  very  recent  experience 
has  shown,  are  subject  to  change,  and  they  rarely  follow  the  natural 
divisions  suggested  by  the  physical  features  of  the  country.  Of  the 
three  main  divisions  of  the  work,  that  which  appears]  under  the  title 
1  Western  Alps  f  includes  the  entire  range  that  encircles  the  plain  of 
Piedmont,  from  the  Maritime  Alps  north  of  Nice  to  the  Pass  of  the 
Simplon,  along  with  the  Dauphine  and  Savoy  Alps,  and  the  portions 
of  Switzerland  connected  with  the  Pennine  range.  This  is  the  por- 
tion of  the  Alps  in  which  the  amount  of  new  matter  available  through 
the  activity  of  the  members  of  the  Alpine  Club  is  most  considerable, 
mainly  because  it  includes  the  portions  most  difficult  of  access,  and 
where,  owing  to  the  comparative  neglect  of  their  predecessors,  most 


Xli  INTRODUCTION. 

remained  to  be  done.  [The  volume  devoted  to  the  Central  Alps 
comprehends  the  greater  part  of  Switzerland,  with  the  portions  of  the 
Tyrol  lying  west  of  the  Adige,  along  with  the  Lombard  valleys  to 
their  natural  boundary — the  Lake  of  Garda.  The  third  volume  is 
devoted  to  the  Eastern  Alps,  extending  from  the  Adige  nearly  to 
Vienna,  and  from  the  plains  of  Venetia  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
Munich.] 

[Although  the  activity  of  Swiss,  Italian,  Austrian,  and  German 
naturalists  and  mountaineers  has  left  less  scope  for  new  explorations 
in  the  two  latter  volumes,  the  writer  trusts  that  they  will  be  found 
to  contain  a  large  amount  of  information,  either  new,  or  not 
easily  accessible,  derived  from  his  own  observations  or  those  of  his 
correspondents.] 

It  may  be  a  satisfaction  to  future  travellers  if  the  writer  here  ex- 
presses his  conviction  that,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  yet  been  done,  no 
portion  of  the  Alps  can,  in  a  topographical,  and  still  less  in  a  scientific 
sense,  be  said  to  be  thoroughly  explored.  In  districts  supposed  to 
be  well  known,  an  active  mountaineer  will  constantly  find  scope  for 
new  expeditions ;  and  if  he  has  cultivated  the  habit  of  observation, 
he  may,  at  the  same  time,  make  these  subservient  to  the  increase  of 
knowledge. 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  reconcile  the  necessity 
for  compression  with  the  abundance  of  materials  at  hand,  and  the 
writer  cannot  expect  to  escape  criticism  from  readers  who  may  find 
one  or  other  subject  imperfectly  treated.  Though  it  is  hoped  that 
the  work  will  be  found  useful  for  reference,  as  containing  a  large  body 
of  topographical  and  other  information,  it  is  primarily  intended  for 
Alpine  travellers,  and  the  object  kept  in  view  has  been  to  select  the 
matter  most  likely  to  be  of  use  and  interest  to  that  class.  Had  it 
been  designed  as  a  history  of  Alpine  adventure,  it  would  be  open  to 
the  reproach  that  it  does  not  adequately  notice  the  labours  of  earlier 
explorers,  such  as  Saussure,  Hugi,  Zumstein,  and  many  other  surviv- 
ing travellers,  nor  often  refer  to  the  earlier  authorities.  The  writer 
has  perhaps  more  reason  to  fear  that  travellers  may  reproach  him  for 
having  admitted  too  much  matter,  than  for  undue  brevity. 

In  respect  to  expeditions  which  have  been  made  but  once,  or  very 
rarely,  the  writer  has  usually  given  the  account  in  an  abridged  form, 
but   in   the   actual    words   of  the   traveller  whose  initials  are  sub- 


PREFACE  TO  THE   FIRST   EDITION.  Xlll 

scribed,  the  names   being   given   in   full   in   the  annexed  page  of 
Explanations. 

To  the  authors  of  these  notes  which  have,  for  the  most  part, 
been  communicated  in  MSS.  to  the  writer,  he  begs  hereby  to 
express  his  cordial  acknowledgments,  and  his  hope  that  they  will 
continue  to  furnish  further  information  towards  [future  editions]  of  the 
work.  At  the  risk  of  appearing  to  fail  in  more  special  acknowledg- 
ment to  others  who  have  contributed  valuable  matter,  he  feels  bound 
to  offer  his  especial  thanks  to  Messrs.  W.  Mathews,  jun.,  and 
F.  F.  Tuckett,  and  to  [Colonel  Karl  v.  Sonklar,  of  Innsbruck].*  The 
two  former  gentlemen,  in  particular,  have  afforded  invaluable  assist- 
ance by  the  corrections  and  hints  which  they  are  each  so  well  able 
to  afford,  and  which  were  the  more  necessary  as  the  work  has  been 
for  the  most  part  executed  at  a  distance  from  England,  and  with 
but  limited  opportunities  for  consulting  works  of  reference. 

J.  Ball. 

1863. 

•  In  the  1863  edition  the  third  name  mentioned  was  that  of  Chanoine  Carrel  of  Aosta. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Prefaces  (New  and  Old) vii,  ix 

I.  Practical  Hints xv 

Art.          I.     Preliminary  Information     .         .         .         .         .         .  xv 

II.     Routes  for  Approaching  the  Alps  from  London    .         .  xviii 

III.  Modes  of  Travelling  in  the  Alps          ....  xxiv 

IV.  Plan  of  a  Tour xxvi 

V.     General  Advice  to  Travellers  in  the  Alps    .         .         .  xxvi 

VI.     Advice  to  Pedestrians          ......  xxxii 

VII.     On  Mountaineering    .......  xxxvii 

VIII.     Guides  and  Porters    .......  xliv 

IX.     Inns  and  Club  Huts  .......  xlviii 

X.     Life  in  an  Alpine  Valley.     By  W.  A.  B.  Coolidge        .  lii 

II.  Scientific  Notes lxvi 

Art.       XI.     Geology  of  the  Alps.     By  Prof.  Bonney      .         .         .  lxvi 

,,       XII.     Alpine  Zoology .  xcviii 

,,     XIII.     Climate  and  Vegetation  of  the  Alps.     By  Percy  Groom  ciii 

, ,      XIV.     The  Snow  Region  of  the  Alps cxxii 

,,        XV.     Photography  in  the  High  Alps.     By  Sydney  Spencer  .  cxxxiii 

Appendices cxli 

a.  List  of  Books  and  Maps  relating  to  the  Alps       ....  cxli 

b.  A  Glossary  of  Alpine  Terms.     By  W.  A.  B.  Coolidge          .         .  cliii 

Index clxi 


INTRODUCTION, 


I.    PRACTICAL   HINTS. 

Art.  Z. — Preliminary  Information. 

Passports.— Money.— Custom-House  Regulations.— Luggage.— 
Post  O ffices.—  Telegraphs.— Measures.— Time. 

Passports. — English  travellers  are  not  now  required,  as  a  rule,  to 
produce  passports  on  entering  France,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Austria,  or 
Germany.  But  if  it  is  intended  to  visit  the  Franco- Italian  frontier  south 
of  the  Mont  Blanc  range  it  is  prudent  to  have  a  passport,  and  also  a.  visa, 
especially  on  the  French  side,  where  the  spy  mania  is  particularly  preva- 
lent. It  is  also  often  useful  elsewhere  to  have  a  passport,  which  on  the 
Continent  is  the  legal  mode  of  establishing  the  identity  of  the  bearer,  e.g. 
at  Post  Offices,  and  other  public  establishments. 

Passports  are  issued  at  the  Foreign  Office,  London,  S.W.,  on  a  written 
application,  accompanied  by  a  recommendation  from  some  one  known  to 
the  Secretary  of  State  (if  the  applicant  is  not  personally  known  to  him),  or 
from  a  banker,  or  by  a  certificate  of  identity  signed  by  the  applicant,  as  well 
as  by  any  Mayor,  Magistrate,  Justice  of  the  Peace,  Minister  of  Religion, 
Physician,  Surgeon,  Barrister,  Solicitor,  or  Notary  resident  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  fee  is  25*.  The  various  members  of  a  family  travelling 
together  may  be  included  in  a  single  passport,  if  the  degrees  of  relation- 
ship are  stated  ;  names  of  male  members  of  the  family,  and  of  any  man- 
servant (if  a  British  subject — otherwise  he  must  procure  a  passport  from 
his  own  Government),  must  be  given  in  full.  Friends  travelling  together, 
although  not  related,  may  be  included  in  the  same  passport,  but  in  this 
case  each  of  their  names  should  be  stated  in  the  application.  Passports 
are  issued  between  u  A.M.  and  4  P.M.  on  the  day  (but  not  on  Sundays  or 
public  holidays)  following  that  on  which  the  application  has  been  received 
at  the  Foreign  Office.  A  passport  cannot  be  granted  in  London  to  a 
person  already  abroad,  who  should  apply  to  the  nearest  British  Mission 
or  Consulate.  The  bearer  of  every  passport  should  sign  his  name 
clearly  as  soon  as  he  receives  it.  A  Foreign  Office  Passport  is  good 
for  the  life  of  the  bearer. 


XVI  INTRODUCTION. 

There  are  several  Passport  Agencies  in  London  where  the  whole 
business  of  obtaining  a  passport,  and  any  needful  visa,  is  transacted  for 
a  small  fee,  e.g.  is.  6d.  per  passport,  with  is.  per  visa,  in  both  cases  in 
addition  to  the  Foreign  Office  and  Consulate  charges. 

Money.— The  coinages  of  France,  Italy,  and  Switzerland  are  the 
sarne,  accounts  being  kept  in  francs  and  centimes.  But  Italian  or  Swiss 
( cms  below  5  francs  pass  in  Italy  or  Switzerland  only,  while  in  Switzer- 
land Swiss  pieces  of  1859-1863  (sitting  figure  of  Helvetia)  are  no  longer 
curvei/i.  Papal  coins  are  received  in  none  of  the  three  countries.  French 
napoleons  (there  are  but  few  Swiss  20-fr.  pieces)  are  the  most  con- 
venient coins  to  carry.  Italian  inconvertible  notes  pass  in  Italy  only, 
while  in  Switzerland  the  notes  of  the  Cantonal  Banks  are  not  always 
received  in  other  Cantons,  and  French  notes  are  generally  taken  only  at 
a  discount. 

English  sovereigns  and  Bank  of  England  notes  are  accepted  in  all 
the  villages  frequented  by  travellers  in  Switzerland  or  Italy,  but  not 
always  in  France.  Cheques,  or  Circular  Notes  (for  sums  of  ^10  and 
upwards)  are  cashed  at  most  of  the  principal  hotels,  or  at  the  branch 
banks  which  are  established  in  most  of  the  chief  tourist  resorts  during 
the  summer.  In  the  case  of  Circular  Notes  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  the  notes  separate  from  the  letter  which  accompanies  them.  In 
Austria  the  former  coinage  of  silver  florins  (or  gulden),  each  divided  into 
100  kreuzers,  is  being  replaced  by  silver  crowns,  or  'kronen'  (each  worth 
about  10^.,  J  florin,  or  a  franc),  divided  into  100  'heller'  (each  worth 
\  kreuzer),  which  thus  roughly  answers  to  the  coinage  of  the  three 
other  countries.  There  are  also  5  and  10  florin  (or  gulden)  notes  (besides 
higher  denominations),  which  are  current  everywhere  and  are  very  con- 
venient. 

A  little  experience  teaches  the  traveller  the  importance  of  being  always 
provided  with  small  coins  of  the  country  visited.  It  is  often  possible, 
before  arriving  at  the  frontier,  to  procure  a  supply  at  some  Exchange 
Office,  which  is  often  more  convenient  and  economical  than  doing  so  after 
arrival  in  the  country.  Of  course  the  rates  of  exchange  of  the  coinage 
of  one  country  in  another  vary  from  day  to  day,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  ascertain  the  actual  current  rate  at  the  moment  of  application. 

Custom-House  Regulations. — The  regulations  affecting  travellers 
are  not  usually  very  strict.  Of  the  articles  usually  carried  by  travellers, 
cigars,  spirits,  and  unworn  wearing  apparel  are  the  principal  liable  to 
duty,  and  should  be  declared  to  avoid  unpleasantness  and  inconvenience. 
A  small  number  of  cigars  or  a  small  amount  of  tobacco  may  be  taken 
free,  but  the  Italian  officials  are  often  very  strict  in  this  matter.  Nowa- 
days through  travellers  can  generally  register  their  heavy  luggage  from 
London  direct  to  the  more  important  towns  in  the  country  whither  they 
are  bound,  e.g.  Basel,  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Bern  (but  only  to  the  Italian 
frontier),  where  it  will  be  examined,  but  not  en  route.  If  luggage  is  sent 
across  the  frontier  without  being  accompanied  by  its  owners,  it  will  be 
examined,  and  the  keys  should  be  attached  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  easily 
accessible. 

As  a  general  rule  officials  in  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Austria  are  civil 
and  obliging  when   treated  with  the   courtesy  to  which   they  are   ac- 


PRELIMINARY   INFORMATION.  wii 

customed.  In  Prussia  and  at  times  in  France  the  case  is  otherwise,  and 
the  temper  of  the  traveller  is  tried  by  the  rudeness  of  underlings.  But 
unless  the  case  be  serious  enough,  and  the  facts  sufficiently  plain,  to  call 
for  a  complaint  to  the  official  superior,  a  wise  traveller  will  disregard 
conduct  which  he  cannot  resent  effectually,  and  which  it  is  undignified 
to  meet  by  an  unavailing  show  of  anger.  These  subordinate  officials 
often  have  it  in  their  power  to  cause  great  annoyance  to  a  stranger, 
while  he  is  powerless  as  regards  them,  and  will  do  best  to  avoid  an  un- 
equal encounter.  , 

luggage.— Travellers  who  register  their  luggage  direct  from  London 
to  their  destination  (but  not  beyond  the  Italian  frontier)  are  entitled  to  a 
free  allowance  of  56  lbs.  (25  kilogrammes).  But  within  each  country  this 
privilege  varies.  In  France  the  allowance  is  about  66  lbs.  (30  kilos.) 
But  in  Switzerland  (as  in  Italy)  there  is  no  free  allowance  at  all  on  the 
railways,  while  on  the  diligences  22-33  l°s-  (10-15  kilos.)  are  allowed, 
according  as  the  road  traversed  is  over  a  mountain  pass  or  in  the  plains. 
On  the  other  hand  in  Switzerland  it  is  very  easy  and  extremely  cheap  to 
forward  luggage  through  any  post  office  within  the  country. 

Post  Offices. — As  a  rule  letters  clearly  addressed  (especially  if  to  an 
hotel)  rarely  go  astray  within  the  four  countries  with  which  the  traveller  in 
the  Alps  is  concerned.  But  the  officials  vary  according  to  their  nationality, 
as  pointed  out  above,  as  well  as  the  regulations  which  they  are  entitled 
to  enforce.  It  is  best  to  avoid  all  titles,  prefixes,  or  affixes  in  addressing 
letters  abroad,  save  the  plain  prefix  '  Monsieur5  or  '  Madame.' 

Letters  to  or  from  England  in  the  case  of  Switzerland,  Italy,  France, 
and  Austria  cost  i\d.  (25  cents.,  or  10  kreuzers)per  \  oz.,  while  postcards 
are  id.  (10  cents.,  or  5  kreuzers).  Within  the  different  countries  the  rates 
vary  :  in  Switzerland  a  letter  weighing  \  lb.  costs  but  id.  (10  cents.),  while 
a  post  card  is  \d.  (5  cents.) ;  but  in  France  a  i-oz.  letter  costs  1^.(15  cents.), 
while  a  post  card  is  id.  (10  cents.) 

The  convenience  of  forwarding  luggage  within  Switzerland  through 
the  post  office  has  been  pointed  out  above. 

Telegraphs  and  Telephones. — The  telegraphic  (and  telephonic)  net- 
work is  now  spread  everywhere  very  widely,  even  (during  the  summer) 
extending  to  many  of  the  high  mountain  inns.  The  charges  are  so  low 
that  it  is  an  excellent  plan,  at  least  in  the  height  of  the  season,  to  secure 
rooms  in  advance  by  a  telegram.  In  Switzerland  the  rate  for  a  telegram 
to  Great  Britain  is  a  fixed  charge  of  50  cents.,  plus  29  cents,  per  word  ; 
while  within  the  country  itself  the  charges  are  30  cents,  and  2^  cents, 
respectively.  In  France  the  rates  are  20  cents,  per  word,  1  fr.  minimum 
charge,  and  (inland)  50  cents,  for  10  words,  5  cents,  per  additional  word. 

Measures.— In  all  four  countries— Switzerland,  France,  Italy,  and 
Austria— the  metrical  system  is  now  adopted,  which  is  extremely  con- 
venient.    It  is  as  follows  : — 

A  Millimetre  equals  -039  inch. 
A  Centimetre       ,,       *39 incn- 

A  M^tre  „  3*281  ft- 

A  Kilometre         ,,  '621  mile. 

A  Kilogramme      ,,  2-20  lbs.  av. 


XVlll  INTRODUCTION. 

But  old  local  measures  linger  here  and  there.  A  Swiss  foot  is  1 1 *8i 
Engl,  inches  ;  a  Swiss  '  Stunde'  is  2*98  Engl,  miles  ;  while  a  Swiss  pound 
is  no  lb.  av.  In  France  a  foot  is  ir8i  inches,  a  'Toise'  70-86  inches, 
and  a  'Livre'  no  lb.  av.  An  old  Austrian  foot  is  1*03  Engl,  ft,  a 
'  Klafter'  is  2*87  yards,  a  post  mile  is  471  Engl,  miles,  while  a  pound  is 
1  -23  lb.  av. 

Time. — In  Belgium  and  Holland,  like  Great  Britain,  Greenwich  (or 
Western  European)  time  now  prevails.  This  is  just  1  hr.  later  than 
Central  Eiwopean  time,  which  obtains  in  Switzerland,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
Austria  :  but  in  France  Paris  time  is  4-5  minutes  faster  than  Greenwich 
time,  or  55-56  minutes  later  than  Central  European  time,  while  French 
railway  time  is  5  or  6  minutes  later  than  Paris  time.  In  some  towns  local 
time  is  still  observed.  Italian  time  is  reckoned  to  24  hours,  from  mid- 
night to  midnight.  • 


Art.  ZX. — Routes  for  Approaching  the  Alps  from  London. 

It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  no  class  has  profited  more  by  the  ex- 
tension of  railways  than  travellers  in  the  Alps.  To  that  large  majority 
who  are  limited  either  as  to  time  or  as  to  money  the  means  of  crossing 
half  Europe  with  the  outlay  of  but  20  hours  or  so  in  time,  and  a  trifling- 
expenditure  of  money,  very  often  makes  a  tour  possible  which  otherwise 
would  never  have  been  undertaken.  The  extension  of  railways  through 
and  on  both  sides  of  the  Alpine  chain  has  not  merely  enabled  strangers 
to  approach  all  parts  of  the  Alps  with  little  loss  of  time,  but  has  largely 
increased  the  facilities  for  passing  from  one  part  of  the  chain  to  another. 
Hence  a  traveller  may  now  combine  in  a  single  tour  visits  to  several 
different  and  distant  districts,  allotting  to  each  of  them  a  fair  share  of 
time,  and  expending  but  little  on  going  from  one  to  the  other. 

Some  of  the  fast  trains  (especially  in  France)  take  only  first-class 
passengers,  and  on  a  long  journey,  especially  if  time  is  limited,  it  is  true 
economy  to  travel  in  such  trains.  The  second-class  carriages  are  now 
everywhere  more  comfortable  than  formerly,  and  should  be  used  on 
shorter  journeys.  In  Switzerland  few,  save  through  travellers,  or  very 
rich  persons,  make  use  of  the  luxurious  first-class  carriages. 

In  the  following  remarks  an  attempt  is  made  to  indicate  the  quickest 
and  shortest  route  from  London  to  each  of  the  chief  districts  of  the  Alps. 
The  traveller  should  take  care  to  obtain  the  latest  information  as  to  the 
times  of  departure  of  the  trains.  The  Continental  '  Bradshaw '  is  very 
useful,  but  should  be  checked,  when  possible,  by  the  Railway  Time  Tables 
issued  by  the  various  railway  companies  in  the  different  countries 
visited.  Return  tickets,  available  for  from  30  to  45  days,  to  all  the 
chief  tourist  resorts,  can  now  generally  be  procured,  and  can,  like  ordi- 
nary tickets,  or  special  tickets  for  a  Circular  Tour,  be  bought  before- 
hand at  Cook's  or  Gaze's  Tourist  Agencies  in  London. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  fast  routes  for  approaching  the  Alps  from 
London  may  be  classified  under  three  main  headings,  according  as  the 
traveller  wishes  to  visit  the  Western,  the  Central,  or  the  Eastern  Alps. 
If  bound  for  any  part  of  the  Western  Alps  the  traveller  must  go  through 


ROUTES   FOR  APPROACHING   THE  ALPS   FROM    LONDON.  xix 

Paris  ;  if  bound  for  any  part  of  the  Central  Alps  (save  the  upper  Rhone 
valley)  he  should  make  Basel  his  object  ;  while  for  most  parts  of  the 
Eastern  Alps  (some,  as  will  be  shown  below,  are  best  reached  from  Basel) 
he  must  go  to  Innsbruck,  Munich,  Salzburg,  or  Vienna.  But  naturally 
these  routes  occasionally  overlap  :  e.g.  the  Bernese  Oberland  may  be 
reached  from  London  vid  Paris,  as  well  as  direct  by  Laon,  while  the 
Alpine  districts  on  the  W.  of  the  Brenner  line  may  be  most  conveniently 
gained  without  going  quite  to  Innsbruck. 

i.  western  alps  (Paris  to  Nice,  Grenoble,  Gap,  Briancon, 
Modane,  Turin,  Albertville,  Geneva,  Lausanne,  or  Brieg). — Paris  may  of 
course  be  reached  from  London  by  many  routes  with  which  we  have  not 
here  to  trouble  ourselves.  From  Paris  the  various  chief  districts  of  the 
Western  Alps  may  be  best  gained  as  follows  : — 

(a)  Maritime  Alps  (§§  I  and  2). — By  Lyons  and  Marseilles  to  Ni\y 
(c.  i'S£  hrs.),  and  then  by  the  Southern  Railway  (§  2)  ;  or  by  the  Mont  Cenis 
line,  to  Turin  (17^  hrs.),  and  on  by  Cuneo  to  Valdieri  or  Limone  (§  1). 

(b)  Cottian  Alps  (§§  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7). — Much  depends  on  which 
particular  district  of  this  very  extensive  mountain  region  it  is  desired  to 
reach.  The  Chambeyron  district  may  be  best  reached  vid  Grenoble,  Gap, 
and  Prunieres  station,  whence  there  is  a  diligence  to  Barcelonnette 
(§  9.  Rte.  Q  and  §  3.  Rte.  A) ;  or  the  Col  de  PArgentiere  may  be  crossed 
from  Cuneo  to  the  same  remote  town  (§  3.  Rte.  A). 

The  Viso  is  most  conveniently  gained  vid  Turin,  Bricherasio,  and 
Crissolo  (§  4.  Rte.  B). 

The  Waldensia?i  Valleys  are  easily  reached  from  Turin  by  rail  to 
Torre  Pellice  past  Pinerolo  (§  5.  Rte.  A).  As  on  the  southern  sides  of 
the  Alps  so  many  valleys  open  into  the  main  valley  of  the  Po,  Turin 
is  a  natural  centre,  and  is  joined  by  railways  to  many  towns  in  or  at 
the  opening  of  many  different  valleys — Cuneo,  Saluzzo,  Pinerolo, 
Oulx  and  Bardonneche,  Lanzo,  Ivrea  and  Aosta,  Biella,  Varallo,  Orta, 
and  Domodossola — so  that  most  spots  on  the  Italian  slope  of  the 
Western  Alps  may  be  best  reached  from  Turin. 

The  glens  near  the  Mont  Genevre  are  most  accessible  either  on  the 
French  side  from  the  railway  stations  of  Montdauphin  or  Briangon 
(reached  from  Grenoble  by  Gap  in  7-8  hrs.  respectively,  §  9.  Rte.  Q),  or 
on  the  Italian  side  from  Turin  either  by  Pinerolo  or  by  Oulx  (§  5.  Rte.  B 
and  §  6.  Rte.  A). 

The  Ambin  district  is  most  easily  visited  from  Modane,  on  the  Mont 
Cenis  line  and  13  hrs.  from  Paris  (§  7.  Rte.  A). 

(c)  Dauphine  Alps  (§§  8,  9,  and  10).— For  nearly  all  parts  of  this 
district  (save  the  Aiguilles  d'Arves,  most  accessible  from  St.  Michel  de 
Maurienne,  on  the  Mont  Cenis  line,  and  12^  hrs.  from  Paris)  the  natural 
starting  point  is  Grenoble.  This  may  be  reached  from  Paris  either  by 
Lyons  (12  hrs.)  or  by  ChambeVy,  the  latter  route  offering  the  advantage 
of  through  carriages  and  quick  trains  as  far  as  Chambe*ry  (10  hrs.), 
which  is  only  2  hrs.  by  rail  from  Grenoble.  From  Grenoble  there  is  a 
steam  tramway  to  Bourgd'Oisans(§  8.  Rte.  A),  whence  a  high  road  leads 
up  to  La  Grave  (§  8.  Rte.  A),  a  char  road  and  a  mule  path  up  to  La 
BeVarde  (§  9.  Rte.  A),  and  a  char  road  and  foot  paths  towards  tin- 
Rousses  either  from  Le  Freney  or  from  Allemont  (§  8.  Rtes.  I)  and  E). 


XX  INTRODUCTION. 

The  S.  portions  of  the  Dauphine  Alps  are  best  visited  from  Grenoble  by- 
way of  La  Mure  and  Corps  (§  9.  Rtes.  N  and  O)  (so  the  Valgaudemar), 
or  from  the  La  Bessee  station,  on  the  railway  from  Grenoble  by  Gap  to 
Briangon  (so  the  Vallouise,  §  9.  Rte.  G).  Grenoble  itself  is  the  point 
of  departure  for  the  Grande  Chartreuse  (§  10)  and  Belledonne  ranges 
(§  8.  Rte.  I). 

(d)  Annecy  and  Albertville  District  (§  1 1). — A  traveller  bound  direct 
for  these  parts  should  go  by  the  Mont  Cenis  line  (in  9^  hrs.  from  Paris) 
to  Aix  les  Bains  (whence  there  is  a  branch  line  in  r£  hr.  to  Annecy,  §11. 
Rte.  E),  or  a  little  further  on  to  St.  Pierre  d'Albigny  (branch  line  to 
Albertville,  35  min.,  and  Moutiers  Tarentaise,  1  hr.  on,  §  12.  Rte.  A). 

(e)  Graian  Alps  (§§  12,  13,  14,  and  15). — Pralognan  (§12.  Rte.  H)  is 
accessible  by  road  from  Moutiers  Tarentaise,  Val  d5 1  sere  (§12.  Rte.  B) 
by  road  from  Moutiers  by  Bourg  St.  Maurice,  and  Bonneval  sur  Arc 
(§  7.  Rte.  B  and  §  12.  Rte.  B)  by  road  from  Modane.  The  Lanzo  valleys 
on  the  Italian  side  are  best  approached  from  Lanzo,  \\  hr.  by  rail  from 
Turin  (§13.  Rte.  B),  while  Cogne  is  most  quickly  reached  by  way  of  Turin, 
Ivrea  and  Aosta  (4J-5  hrs.  by  rail  from  Turin  ;  §  15.  Rtes.  A  and  B). 

(/)  Mont  Blanc  and  Sixt  Districts  (§§  16  and  17). — Most  travellers 
wish  to  reach  Chamonix,  and  that  is  most  speedily  gained  (§16.  Rte.  A) 
from  Geneva  (which  is  10J  hrs.  by  rail  from  Paris).  From  Geneva  a 
steam  tramway  runs  to  Samoens,  whence  there  is  a  road  on  to  Sixt 
(§  17.  Rte.  A). 

(g)  Champery,  Bourg-  St.  Pierre,  Evolena,  Zinal,  Zermatt,  Saas, 
and  the  Simplon  (§§  17,  18,  19,  20,  and  21). — All  these  places  are  best 
reached  from  Lausanne,  which  may  be  gained  in  11J  hrs.  from  Paris 
by  Pontarlierand  Vallorbes.  Then  the  line  up  the  Rhone  valley  towards 
Brieg  (§21.  Rte.  A  ;  gj  hrs.  from  Lausanne)  is  used,  the  Ollon  St.  Triphon, 
Martigny,  Sion,  Sierre,  Visp,  and  Brieg  stations  giving  access  to  the 
various  spots.  Zermatt  is  the  only  one  which  can  be  reached  by 
railway  throughout,  6J  hrs.  being  required  from  Lausanne  in  connection 
with  the  fastest  night  train  from  Paris. 

2.  central  ALPS  (Basel  to  Bern,  Interlaken,  Grindelwald, 
Lauterbrunnen,  Meiringen,  Lucerne,  Goschenen,  Locarno,  Lugano, 
Zurich,  Glarus,  Coire,  Thusis,  Davos,  Landeck,  Innsbruck,  Appenzell, 
St.  Gallen,  Constance  and  Romanshorn). 

(a)  Diablerets  District  (§  22). — Ormonts  Dessus  and  Chateau  d'Oex 
are  best  gained,  indeed,  by  Paris,  Lausanne,  and  (1  hr.  on)  Aigle,  but 
there  are  beautiful  routes  from  Thun  direct  to  Saanen,  Gsteig,  Chateau 
d'Oex,  and  Bulle. 

(b)  Gemmi  District  (§  23). — Thun  (50  min.  by  rail  from  Bern)  is 
£  hr.  by  rail  from  Spiez,  which  is  the  principal  starting  point  for  Kander- 
steg,  Adelboden,  and  Lenk,  but  Leukerbad  and  Ried  are  most  directly 
gained  respectively  from  the  Loueche  (Leuk)  and  Gampel  stations,  on  the 
Lausanne-Brieg  railway. 

(c)  Bernese  Oberland  (§  24). — Bern  maybe  gained  direct  from  Paris 
via  Neuchatel  in  13  hrs.,  though  it  is  far  more  convenient  (no  change  of 
carriage  from  Calais)  to  reach  it  direct  from  London  by  Calais,  Laon, 
Reims,  and  Delemont  (22  hrs.) ;  but,  save  in  summer,  when  through 
carriages  run  by  this  route,  it  is  better  to  go  to  Basel  (i8f  hrs.  from 


ROUTES    FOR   APPROACHING   THE  ALPS   FROM    LONDON.  xxi 

London),  and  then  round  in  3  hrs.  to  Bern.  From  about  July  10  to 
September  15a'  train  de  luxe '  has  been  run  of  late  years  direct  from 
Calais  to  Interlaken  ;  this  leaves  London  at  n  a.m.,  like  the  ordinary 
service,  but  reaches  Interlaken  at  8.26  A.M.  instead  of  at  12.45.  But 
even  by  the  ordinary  train  it  is  easy  to  gain  (by  rail)  Grindelwald,  Lauter- 
brunnen,  Miirren,  the  Little  Scheidegg,  or  (by  rail  and  boat)  Meiringen  the 
same  afternoon,  while  a  traveller  bound  for  Kandersteg  or  Adelboden 
should  leave  the  train  at  Spiez  (4-  hr.  beyond  Thun)  in  order  to  attain  those 
spots  by  road  the  same  day.  Ried,  the  Belalp  and  the  Eggishorn  are  best 
reached  from  London  by  way  of  Paris,  Lausanne,  and  Brieg  (1 5  J  hrs.  from 
Paris),  Gampel  being  the  station  for  Ried  and  Brieg  for  the  Belalp,  while 
Viesch(for  the  Eggishorn)  is  3  hrs.  on  by  high  road  from  Brieg. 

The  Emmenthal  and  the  Entlebuch  are  traversed  by  the  main  railway 
from  Bern  to  Lucerne. 

(d)  Titlis  and  Worth  Switzerland  Districts  (§§25  and  26). — Lucerne 
(2  hrs.  from  Basel  by  quick  train)  is  the  best  starting  point  for  most  spots 
included  in  these  districts,  whether  they  lie  on  the  Briinig  {e.g.  Sarnen) 
or  on  the  St.  Gotthard  (e.g.  Brunnen,  Altdorf,  Wassen,  Goschenen)  railway 
lines,  or  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne  (Rigi  and  Pilatus).  Engel- 
berg  is  now  connected  with  Stans  (its  harbour  is  Stansstad)  by  a  light 
railway  of  its  own  (2}  hrs.  from  Lucerne  to  Engelberg).  The  Furka  Pass 
is  reached  by  quitting  the  St.  Gotthard  railway  at  Goschenen  (2  hrs.  from 
Lucerne),  but  the  Grimsel  Pass  and  the  Gadmenthal  are  more  directly 
gained  from  Meiringen  by  road. 

(e)  Tbdi  District  (§  27). — Zurich  (2  hrs.  from  Basel  by  quick  train) 
here  takes  the  most  prominent  place.  Thence  Glarus  (1 J  hr.)  and  Linth- 
thal  (f  hr.  more)  may  be  reached  by  rail,  or  Coire  by  Sargans  in  3  hrs. 
Glarus  is  the  starting  point  for  Elm,  and  Coire  for  Disentis  and  the 
Oberalp  Pass.  The  '  Engadine  Express  '  (in  connection  with  the  1 1  A.M. 
train  from  London)  leaves  Basel  at  5.03  A.M.  and  Zurich  at  7.12, 
reaching  Coire  at  9.48  A.M.,  in  time  to  continue  the  journey  a  long  way 
in  any  direction. 

(/)  Santis  District  (§  28).— Appenzell  or  Wildhaus  are  the  best 
starting  points  for  excursions  in  the  Santis  range.  The  former  is  3J  hrs. 
from  Zurich  by  way  of  Winterthur  and  Winkeln  ;  for  the  latter  the 
station  of  Ebnat-Kappel,  in  the  Toggenburg,  is  2\  hrs.  from  Zurich  by- 
rail  vid  Winterthur  and  Wyl,  and  thence  it  is  a  drive  of  3^  hrs.  to 
Wildhaus. 

(g)  Xiepontine  and  St.  Gotthard  Districts  (§§29  and  30). — The  chief 
centres  here  are  Binn  (2$  hrs.  from  Viesch,  in  the  Rhone  valley,  which 
is  3  hrs.'  drive  from  Brieg),  Airolo  (on  the  St.  Gotthard  line,  at  the  S. 
mouth  of  the  great  tunnel,  and  6^  hrs.  from  Basel  ;  quick  trains  do  not 
stop  at  Airolo),  and  Disentis  (best  reached  from  Coire  in  8$  hrs,*  drive 
by  the  Vorder  Rhein  valley) ;  Tosa  Falls,  Devero,  and  Veglia  are  all 
gained  from  Domodossola,  at  the  Italian  foot  of  the  Simplon  Pass,  the 
first  named  also  from  Airolo  by  the  easy  San  Giacomo  Pass. 

(//)  Adula   District   (§31). — As   this    district    is    composed    of   the 
mountain     mass     lying    between    the    Lukmanier,    and     Spliigen  S;m 
Bernardino  roads,  it  is  most  easily  visited  either  from  Biasca,  on  tli 
Gotthard  railway  (8  hrs.  from  Basel)  or  from  the  various  villages  situated 


XX11  INTRODUCTION. 

on  those  roads,  all  of  which  on  the  N.  are  accessible  by  road  from  Coire, 
the  railway  from  Coire  to  Reichenau  and  Thusis  shortening  the  distance 
to  some  extent. 

[i)  Locarno  and  Como  Districts  (§§32  and  33). — Locarno,  Lugano, 
and  Como  are  the  principal  resorts  of  travellers  in  these  regions.  Each 
may  be  reached  direct  from  Basel  by  the  St.  Gotthard  railway  (6^  hrs., 
6\  hrs.,  and  7  hrs.  respectively  by  quick  trains).  From  them  Bignasco, 
Bellagio,  and  other  well  known  spots  are  accessible  in  a  very  short  time. 

(k)  Albula  and  Bernina  Districts  (§§  34  and  36). — Save  the  Avers  glen 
(most  easily  reached  by  a  drive  from  Andeer,  on  the  Spliigen  road)  these 
districts  mainly  comprise  the  Engadine  and  the  ranges  enclosing  it  on 
either  side.  That  great  valley  may  be  reached  by  many  passes,  which  start 
from  several  railway  stations — the  Julier  and  the  Albula  from  Thusis, 
the  Fliiela  from  Davos,  the  Finstermiinz  from  Landeck,  on  the  Arlberg 
line,  the  Bernina  from  Sondrio,  in  the  Valtellina,  and  the  Maloja  from 
Chiavenna.  It  is  said  that  the  last  named  route  is  on  the  whole  the 
shortest  and  easiest,  as  Chiavenna  may  be  reached  in  3^  hrs.  by  rail 
from  Como,  on  the  St.  Gotthard  line,  which  is  27  hrs.  direct  via  Basel 
from  London.  But  the  proposed  railway  by  the  Albula  Pass  will  (when 
completed)  be  by  far  the  quickest  way. 

(/)  Silvretta  District  (§  35). — If  this  district  is  approached  from  the 
Swiss  side  the  traveller  should  go  direct  to  Klosters,  below  Davos  (7f 
hrs.  by  rail  from  Basel),  while  on  the  Austrian  side  Bludenz  may  be 
reached  by  the  Arlberg  line  in  7  hrs.  from  Basel. 

(m)  Ortler  District  (§  37). — The  quickest  way  to  reach  either  Trafoi 
or  Sulden  (the  main  tourist  centres  of  this  district)  is  by  mail  coach  from 
Landeck,  on  the  Arlberg  line  (9^  hrs.  from  Basel),  over  the  Reschen 
Scheideck  Pass  (12J  hrs.5  drive  to  Trafoi,  and  16^  hrs.  to  Sulden).  But 
a  less  laborious  route  is  to  go  from  Zurich  to  Innsbruck  by  rail  (11  hrs. 
from  Zurich),  and  then  by  rail  by  Bozen  to  Meran  (6  hrs.),  whence  the 
drive  is  not  quite  so  long  as  by  the  first  named  route  (9J-12J  hrs.) 

(n)  Bergamasque  Alps  and  Val  Camonica  District  (§§38  and  39). — 
From  the  N.  these  districts  are  best  approached  from  the  Valtellina,  in 
which  Sondrio  may  be  gained  in  i^hr.  from  Colico,  easily  reached  by  rail 
in  2§  hrs.  from  Como,  on  the  St.  Gotthard  line.  But  it  is  shorter  to  reach 
them  on  the  S.  from  Bergamo,  which  is  3  hrs.  by  rail  from  Como.  The 
valleys  between  the  Val  Camonica  and  the  Chiese  valley  are  best  visited 
from  Brescia  (5  hrs.  by  rail  from  Como),  which  is  also  a  centre  for  the 
more  southerly  valleys  described  in  the  next  Section. 

(o)  Adamello  and  Brenta  Districts  (§  40). — These  regions  are  best 
reached  from  Bozen  or  Trent,  on  the  Brenner  line  (respectively  5-6J  hrs. 
from  Innsbruck),  but  only  by  means  of  a  long  drive  either  to  Campiglio 
or  Pinzolo  for  the  former,  or  to  Molveno  for  the  latter  district.  On  the 
W.,  Edolo  may  be  easily  gained  from  the  Valtellina  by  the  carriage  road 
over  the  Aprica  Pass,  or  by  a  longer  route  from  Brescia  or  Bergamo  by 
way  of  the  Lake  of  Iseo,  and  the  Val  Camonica  or  Oglio  valley. 

3.  EASTERN'  ALPS  (Innsbruck,  Munich,  Salzburg,  or  Vienna). — As 
the  present  Editor  (W.  A.  B.  C.)  has  but  a  limited  knowledge  of  the 
Eastern  Alps,  it  is  best  for  him  to  content  himself  here  with  a  few  general 
indications. 


ROUTES   FOR  APPROACHING   THE  ALPS   FROM    LONDON.  xxiii 

Innsbruck  is  most  quickly  reached  from  London  by  way  of  Basel, 
Zurich,  and  the  Arlberg  line  ;  a  traveller  leaving  London  at  u  A.M.  may 
thus  reach  Basel  at  5.45,  and  Zurich  at  9.15  the  next  morning,  and 
gain  Innsbruck  the  same  evening  at  6.21  P.M.,  this  being  the  direct  Paris- 
Vienna  express. 

A  traveller  from  Basel  may  join  the  Arlberg  line  at  Feldkirch,  after 
having  taken  one  of  the  lines  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  to  Constance, 
and  sailed  down  the  lake  of  that  name  to  Bregenz  ;  this  is  a  longer  but 
a  pleasanter  route  than  the  direct  one  vid  Zurich  and  Buchs. 

Near  Innsbruck  the  traveller  may  easily  reach  the  Oetzthal  and 
Pitzthal  districts  (from  the  Oetzthal  or  Imst  stations,  distant  28^  m.  and 
34  m.  respectively  on  the  Landeck  line  to  the  W.),  or  the  Zillerthal  group 
(from  the  Jenbach  station,  24  m.  off  to  the  N.E.  on  the  Munich  line). 
There  is  an  alternative  entrance  to  the  glaciers  at  the  head  of  the 
Zillerthal  from  S.  Jodok  am  Brenner  (19  m.  from  Innsbruck).  The 
Glockner  and  Venediger  groups  are  best  reached  from  Innsbruck  by  taking 
the  Brenner  line  as  far  as  Franzensfeste  (52  m.  from  Innsbruck),  whence  it 
is  66  m.  more  by  the  Pusterthal  railway  to  Lienz,  the  best  starting  point 
for  these  districts  :  there  is  an  alternative  approach  by  Jenbach  and  Zell. 
38  m.  from  Franzensfeste,  by  the  Pusterthal  line,  is  Toblach,  the  station 
for  Cortina  and  the  Ampezzo  Dolomites. 

Further  S.  than  Franzensfeste,  on  the  Brenner  line,  are  Waidbruck 
(69  m.  from  Innsbruck),  the  station  for  the  Grodenerthal,  and  Bozen  (83^ 
m.  from  Innsbruck),  the  station  for  the  Rosengarten  range,  while  still 
further  S.  (96 J  m.  from  Innsbruck,  13  m.  S.  of  Bozen,  or  22  m.  N.  of 
Trent)  is  Neumarkt,  the  station  for  Predazzo,  S.  Martino  di  Castrozza, 
and  Primiero. 

From  Franzensfeste  the  Lienz  line  continues  nearly  due  E.  by  Villach 
(64  m.  from  Lienz)  and  Klagenfurt  (24  m.  from  Villach)  to  Marburg 
(233^  m.  from  Franzensfeste).  At  Marburg  (31  m.  from  Graz)  the  direct 
Semmering  line  from  Vienna  to  Trieste  (89^  m.  from  Laibach,  or  366  m. 
from  Vienna)  by  Bruck  (106  m.),  Graz  (43  m.),  and  Laibach  (96^  m.  from 
Marburg)  (this  line  may  be  said  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  course 
to  skirt  the  E.  extremity  of  the  Alps)  is  joined,  so  that  this  route  from 
Innsbruck  by  Franzensfeste  is  probably  now  the  quickest  from  London 
to  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola.  At  Bruck  the  Pontebba  line  leaves 
the  Trieste  line,  and  runs  by  Villach  (128  m.)  to  Udine  (82 J  m.),  whence 
either  Venice  or  Trieste  is  easily  reached. 

Munich  may  be  reached  in  24  hrs.  from  London  by  way  of  Ostend, 
Cologne,  Aschaffenburg,  Wiirzburg,  and  Ingolstadt. 

Vienna  is  most  quickly  gained  from  London  (29^  hrs.)  by  branching  off 
from  the  route  to  Munich  at  Wiirzburg,  and  then  proceeding  by  Niirnberg, 
Regensburg  (Ratisbon),  and  Passau.  (The  'Oriental  Express '  makes 
the  round  by  Paris,  and  employs  32 J  hrs.  between  London  and  Vienna.) 

Salzburg  is  reached  (54J  m.)  from  the  Rosenheim  station,  between 
Innsbruck  (69  m.  to  Rosenheim)  and  Munich  (40^  m.  to  Rosenheim— 
3£  hrs.  by  quick  train  from  Munich  to  Salzburg) ;  it  is  195  m.  further 
from  Salzburg  to  Vienna  (6-6£  hrs.  by  quick  trains). 


INTRODUCTION. 


Art.  XXI. — modes  of  Travelling  in  the  Alps. 

Of  the  various  modes  of  conveyance  to  be  enumerated  in  this  Article 
none  are  more  than  imperfect  substitutes  for  the  only  means  of  travelling 
which  is  completely  satisfactory  to  the  lover  and  student  of  nature. 
Walking  is  so  peculiarly  the  suitable  way  of  visiting  the  Alps  that  it  is 
most  conveniently  discussed  separately  (Articles  VI.  and  VII.,  below) 
under  its  two  forms  of  pedestrianism  and  mountaineering.  But  there 
are  times  and  occasions  when  even  the  most  ardent  walkers  must  have 
recourse  to  other  means  of  conveyance. 

i.  Railways. — Apart  from  the  facilities  that  railways  afford  for  ap- 
proaching the  Alps  from  London  (Art.  II.,  above),  they  are  of  great  service 
to  mountain  travellers,  as  they  enable  them,  with  the  least  possible 
expenditure  of  time  and  trouble,  to  transfer  themselves  from  one  centre 
of  interest  to  another.  Few  persons  will  suppose  that  passing  through  a 
mountain  country  in  a  railway  carriage  can  enable  them  to  form  any 
correct  idea  of  its  attractions,  yet  there  are  a  few  lines  (such  as  those 
from  Culoz  by  the  Mont  Cenis  or  Frejus  tunnel  to  Turin,  from  Lucerne 
to  Milan  by  the  St.  Gotthard  line  and  tunnel,  and  from  Innsbruck  to 
Verona  by  the  Brenner)  where  a  succession  of  beautiful  pictures  is  un- 
rolled before  the  traveller's  eyes.  But  apart  from  the  great  lines  that 
pierce  the  Alps  by  the  Frejus,  St.  Gotthard,  and  Arlberg  Tunnels  there 
are  now  a  host  of  minor  lines  which  run  from  the  plains  up  into  the 
mountains,  whether  in  Switzerland,  Italy,  France,  or  Austria,  and  which 
thus  enable  a  traveller  to  gain  the  very  heart  of  the  Alps  below  the  snow 
line  without  trouble.  Further,  there  are  the  light  mountain  railways  {e.g. 
over  the  Wengern  Alp,  to  Miirren,  up  the  Rigi,  Pilatus,  &c),  which,  how- 
ever distasteful  to  the  lover  of  quiet,  are  yet  in  their  way  convenient, 
even  occasionally  to  ardent  walkers.  But  those  who  have  the  strength 
and  health  required  to  gain  acquaintance  with  the  inmost  recesses  of  the 
ice  and  snow  world  may  be  pardoned  if  they  view  with  the  greatest 
horror  the  modern  schemes  for  taking  railways  up  the  Jungfrau,  the 
Matterhorn,  and  Mont  Blanc. 

2.  steamers. — All  the  principal  lakes  of  the  Alps  (though  not  always 
the  minor  lakes)  are  now  traversed  by  steamers.  Wherever  they  exist 
they  offer  an  easy  and  economical  mode  of  travelling  (though  not  a 
speedy  one),  of  which  travellers  will  not  be  slow  to  avail  themselves. 
One  great  advantage  of  travelling  by  steamer  is  that  the  noise  and  dust 
of  the  railway  is  avoided,  while  often  the  same  ticket  (as  on  the  Lake  of 
Thun)  may  be  used  indifferently  for  rail  or  steamer,  thus  enabling 
travellers  to  embark  on  the  boat  only  when  the  weather  is  fine. 

3.  Diligences. — Nearly  every  year  sees  the  opening  of  some  new  rail- 
way in  the  Alps,  which  means  the  disappearance  of  the  diligences  that 
formerly  plied  over  that  road.  Yet  every  year  too  sees  new  carriage 
roads  opened,  so  that  a  fresh  service  of  diligences  is  required.  All  the 
great  mountain  roads  which  are  as  yet  free  from  railways — e.g.  the  Col 
de  Tenda,  the  Mont  Genevre,  the  Col  du  Lautaret,  the  Simplon,  the 
Furka,  the  Grimsel,  and  in  particular  the  passes  leading  to  the  Inn 
valley — are  now  well  supplied  with  diligences.     The  carriages  are  usually 


MODES  OF  TRAVELLING   IN  THE  ALPS.  xxv 

of  modern  make,  and  specially  meant  for  travellers  who  desire  to  obtain 
views  on  the  way,  and  form  a  great  contrast  to  the  heavy,  lumbering 
vehicles  that  old  travellers  will  recollect.  The  Swiss  diligence  service 
in  particular  is  very  well  organised,  as  it  is  a  Government  monopoly.  The 
prices  in  Switzerland  vary  slightly  according  to  the  seat  occupied,  but  the 
maximum  allowed  by  law  is  from  25  to  30  centimes  per  kilometre  (rather 
over  £  mile).  Travellers  have  a  free  allowance  of  from  33  to  22  lbs.  of 
luggage,  according  as  the  road  is  in  the  plains  or  traverses  a  mountain 
pass  ;  but  by  a  curious  anomaly  excess  luggage  is  charged  for  not  on  the 
actual  amount  in  excess,  but  on  the  total  weight  belonging  to  that 
particular  traveller  or  party. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  some  of  the  great  Alpine  passes 
— e.g.  the  Mont  Cenis  and  the  St.  Gotthard — are  not  now  traversed  by 
regular  services  of  diligences,  as  there  the  railway  through  the  mountain 
has  practically  supplanted  the  road  over  it.  But  the  roads  are  still  more 
or  less  kept  up,  though  it  is  not  always  easy  now  to  procure  a  private 
conveyance. 

4.  Carriages. — Save  in  the  remoter  parts  of  the  Alps  it  may  be  said 
generally  that  where  there  is  a  road  there  will  be  found  carriages  for  hire. 
But  these  vehicles  vary  much  in  size,  shape,  and  convenience.  Nearly 
everywhere,  too,  there  is  now  an  official  tariff  fixed  by  the  Government 
authorities,  so  that  it  is  only  in  certain  corners  of  the  Alps  that  travellers 
need  bargain  beforehand.  This  necessity  in  the  better  known  parts  of  the 
Alps  is  practically  confined  to  the  wealthy  traveller  who  desires  to  make 
a  round  over  certain  Alpine  passes — e.g.  from  the  Engadine  and  back 
by  the  Maloja,  the  Spliigen,  and  the  Albula.  In  that  case  it  is  most 
prudent  to  have  a  written  agreement.  But  the  old-fashioned  vetturino  has 
all  but  completely  disappeared,  save  in  such  exceptional  cases.  At  every 
railway  station  in  the  Alps  of  any  importance  one-  and  two-horse 
carriages  are  now  certain  to  be  found  in  waiting  on  the  arrival  of  the 
principal  trains  ;  and  the  competition  is  then  between  the  drivers,  and  not 
between  the  traveller  and  the  driver.  Sometimes  a  return  carriage  may 
be  had  at  a  reduced  charge,  but  this  means  a  special  bargain  made  before- 
hand. 

On  many  of  the  principal  roads  in  Switzerland  there  is  a  convenient 
Government  arrangement  (with  an  official  tariff)  called  '  Extrapost/  or 
posting,  with  the  same  carriage,  but  changes  of  horses. 

5.  Ridingr. — Railways  and  carriage  roads  have  to  a  very  considerable 
extent  done  away  with  the  former  usual  practice  of  engaging  horses  or 
mules  to  cross  mountain  passes.  This  practice  lingers  mainly  in  certain 
great  Alpine  centres  for  one-day  excursions,  or  small  ascents  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood.  Generally  there  is  now  an  official 
tariff,  but  travellers  should  bear  in  mind  that  in  remoter  parts  of  the  Alps, 
where  no  official  tariffs  exist,  the  prices  given  in  guide  books  often  depend 
on  the  experience  of  perhaps  a  single  traveller,  and  should  not  fret  when 
the  next  passer-by  is  asked  a  higher  price.  If  a  horse  or  mule  be  em- 
ployed, it  is  well  to  abstain  from  interfering  with  the  animal,  which  is 
probably  used  to  carry  loads  only,  and  is  not  accustomed  to  being  ridden 
in  the  proper  sense. 

6.  Chaises  a  Porteur  (Germ.  Tragsesset).— This  is  a  rough  kind  of 


XXVI  INTRODUCTION. 

arm-chair,  supported  by  two  poles,  and  carried  by  two  bearers.  They  are  , 
very  rarely  found  now  in  the  Alps,  save  for  short  excursions  for  those  who 
dislike  riding.  Formerly  they  were  very  common  in  the  Bernese  Ober- 
land,  but  nowadays  they  are  hardly  ever  seen  there,  except  for  excur- 
sions, e.g.  from  Grindelwald  to  the  two  glaciers. 

Art.  IV. — Plan  of  a  Tour. 

The  tastes  of  travellers  in  the  Alps  are  too  different,  and  the  objects 
which  they  propose  to  themselves  too  various,  to  make  it  easy  to  offer 
useful  advice  respecting  the  plan  of  a  tour.  The  desire  to  see  as  many 
remarkable  places  as  possible  within  a  given  time  is  so  natural  in  begin- 
ners, that  it  is  useless  to  contend  against  it.  Nothing  but  experience 
suffices  to  prove  that  to  derive  the  fullest  and  most  permanent  satisfaction 
from  natural  scenery,  even  more  than  from  other  sources  of  aesthetic  en- 
joyment, time  is  an  essential  element.  When  the  impressions  retained 
after  a  visit  to  some  chosen  district — where  the  same  grand  objects  have 
been  viewed  repeatedly  and  in  varied  combination,  under  those  changeful 
conditions  of  sky  and  colouring  that  constantly  succeed  each  other  in 
mountain  countries — are  compared  with  the  imperfect  recollections  that 
remain  after  a  hurried  tour,  most  persons  discover  that  they  do  not  in 
truth  make  the  most  of  their  time  when  they  arrange  an  expedition  to  the 
Alps  with  a  view  to  do  as  much  as  possible  within  a  given  number  of 
days  and  weeks.  It  is  gradually  ascertained  that  the  true  plan  of  a  tour 
in  the  Alps  is  to  select  a  succession  of  places  combining  the  requisite 
attractions  as  head-quarters,  and  to  arrange  the  journey  so  that  as  much 
time  as  possible  shall  be  devoted  to  these,  while  as  little  as  possible  shall 
be  given  to  travelling  from  one  to  the  other.  It  is  true  that  the  advan- 
tages of  such  a  plan  are  far  more  evident  to  those  who  are  fortunate  enough 
to  have  some  pursuit,  scientific  or  artistic,  which  connects  itself  naturally 
with  their  journey.  The  weather  in  mountain  countries  is  subject  to 
frequent  change,  and  there  are  days  when  the  scenery  is  hidden  behind  a 
veil  of  cloud,  rain,  or  snow.  To  the  unemployed  tourist  inaction  is  so 
irksome  that  he  prefers  to  trudge  doggedly  along  an  Alpine  track,  seeing 
nothing  of  the  country,  rather  than  await  fair  weather  in  a  mountain  inn  ; 
while  to  the  naturalist  or  geologist,  or  other  traveller  with  an  occupation, 
such  days,  if  not  too  frequent,  are  acceptable  as  giving  time  to  digest  and 
put  in  order  the  materials  accumulated  during  preceding  mountain 
expeditions. 

This  work  is  designedly  arranged  so  as  to  direct  travellers  to  the  most 
convenient  centres  in  each  district  of  the  Alps,  and  those  especially  fitted 
to  serve  as  head-quarters  are  pointed  out  in  the  remarks  prefixed  to  each 
section.  To  these  indications,  and  to  the  body  of  the  work,  travellers  of 
some  experience  are  referred. 

Art.  V. — General  Advice  to  Travellers  in  the  Alps. 

Season  for  Travelling:. — The  higher  parts  of  the  Alps  are  most  easily 
accessible  during  the  height  of  summer  ;  but  it  is  not  generally  known 
that  many  districts,  including  much  beautiful  scenery,  are  seen  to  the  best 


GENERAL  ADVICE  TO  TRAVELLERS   IN   THE  ALPS.  xwii 

advantage  in  spring  and  autumn.  In  the  month  of  May  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Swiss  lakes,  and  more  especially  the  valleys  of  the  Maritime, 
Lombard,  and  Venetian  Alps,  may  be  visited  with  full  satisfaction.  The 
vegetation  of  those  districts  is  then  seen  in  its  full  beauty,  and  many 
mountains  of  moderate  height,  commanding  noble  views,  may  be  ascended 
without  difficulty,  though  in  some  seasons  a  good  deal  of  snow  still  re- 
mains on  the  secondary  ridges.  In  June  the  rapid  transition  from  winter 
to  spring,  and  from  spring  to  summer,  is  completed  throughout  all  the 
inhabited  valleys  of  the  Alps.  For  the  ordinary  tourist  who  does  not  aim 
at  difficult  ascents,  this  would  be  the  best  season  for  travelling,  were  it 
not  that  the  weather  is  usually  more  changeable  than  in  the  three  suc- 
ceeding months.  Even  for  the  aspiring  mountaineer  the  second  half  of 
June  possesses  many  advantages.  The  length  of  the  day  greatly  facili- 
tates long  expeditions  ;  the  glaciers  are  more  easily  traversed,  as  the 
crevasses  are  narrower,  and  are  more  covered  over  by  snow  bridges  ; 
while  slopes  of  ice,  very  difficult  at  other  times,  are  made  easy  by 
a  covering  of  snow  that  yields  to  the  foot.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  snow  at  this  season  is  ill  consolidated,  and  that 
a  slight  disturbance  very  easily  produces  avalanches.  Certain  couloirs, 
and  very  steep  slopes  that  are  tolerably  safe  later  in  the  year,  are  highly 
dangerous  in  the  early  season.  The  use  of  the  rope,  always  expedient,  is 
doubly  so  at  a  season  when  most  of  the  crevasses  are  concealed  by 
snow  bridges  of  uncertain  solidity.  There  is  also  the  inconvenience  that 
there  is  usually  a  greater  extent  of  soft  snow  to  be  traversed  than  later 
in  the  season.  Another  slight  drawback  to  mountaineering  in  June 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  cattle  have  not  yet  been  sent  up  to  the  higher 
pastures.  The  chalets  to  which  the  traveller  resorts  for  milk,  and  some- 
times for  a  night's  rest,  are  not  yet  inhabited.  But  for  the  same  reason 
nothing  can  then  exceed  the  beauty  of  the  Alpine  pastures,  in  the  full 
blaze  of  their  brilliant  colours,  before  the  grass  and  flowers  are  eaten  or 
trodden  down  by  animals. 

July  and  August  are  the  months  usually  chosen  by  travellers  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  Alps,  and  on  an  average  of  years  the  public  is  doubt- 
less right  in  the  selection.  August  is  the  season  when  the  inns  are  most 
crowded  ;  and  a  traveller  who  has  moved  from  place  to  place  in  July 
does  wisely  to  select  comfortable  and  agreeable  quarters  for  the  succeed- 
ing month.  One  reason  for  passing  this  time  in  the  higher  valleys  is  the 
great  heat  that  is  then  usually  experienced  in  the  low  country  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alps.  The  experience  of  many  years  has  led  the  writer  (J.  B.)  to 
believe  that,  on  an  average,  the  best  chance  of  finding  a  continuous  suc- 
cession of  fine  weather,  with  the  clearness  of  air  favourable  for  distant 
views,  is  during  the  first  half  of  September.  During  the  summer  it  is 
rare  to  find  more  than  three  or  four  days  together  such  as  the  mountaineer 
willingly  chooses  for  an  ascent,  and  even  then  the  distant  horizon  is  seldom 
clear  of  clouds.  Eight  or  ten  consecutive  days  of  perfect  weather  are 
often  to  be  had  in  September.  About  the  middle  of  that  month  snow 
usually  falls  on  the  higher  Alps,  sometimes  descending  to  the  valleys. 
Those  who  do  not  take  flight  are  often  rewarded  by  a  renewal  of  fine 
weather,  extending  into  October.  The  fresh  snow  and  the  shortness  of 
the  days  make  that  season  unfit  for  high  or  difficult  expeditions;  but  it 


XXV111  INTRODUCTION. 

is  most  enjoyable  in  the  southern  valleys,  where  the  great  heat  of  summer 
is  a  serious  impediment  to  the  pleasure  of  travelling  in  the  earlier  season. 
The  Italian  lakes  maybe  visited  with  satisfaction  until  the  end  of  October, 
save  that  in  that  month  a  week  or  ten  days  of  heavy  rain,  extending 
through  the  entire  N.  of  Italy,  may  usually  be  looked  for. 

Of  late  years  winter  climbing  has  become  popular  in  the  Alps,  and 
many  English  flock  thither  for  that  purpose  as  well  as  to  skate,  toboggan, 
i  ski,'  &c,  Grindelwald  being  a  favourite  resort.  November  and  Feb- 
ruary are  the  months  during  which  the  finest  weather  usually  prevails. 

languages  spoken  in  the  Alps. — It  may  safely  be  said  that  half  the 
pleasure  of  travelling  is  lost  to  a  person  who  is  unable  to  speak  the 
language  of  the  country  through  which  he  passes.  Englishmen  are  more 
often  prevented  from  speaking  foreign  languages  by  shyness  and  mauvaise 
honte  than  by  indolence  or  incapacity.  As  there  is  little  room  for  shyness 
in  conversing,  or  attempting  to  converse,  with  a  guide  or  waiter,  a  pedes- 
trian expedition  serves  to  help  many  persons  over  the  first  difficult  step 
of  beginning  to  exercise  the  tongue  in  the  production  of  unaccustomed 
sounds.  The  region  included  in  this  work  is  pretty  equally  divided 
between  the  German,  French,  and  Italian  languages.  German,  which 
has  rather  the  largest  share,  is  spoken  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Austrian  and  Bavarian  Alps,  and  through  three-quarters  of  Switzerland, 
the  division  between  the  French  and  German  districts  nearly  correspond- 
ing with  a  line  drawn  from  Porrentruy  to  Sierre  in  the  Vallais.  West  of 
that  line  French  is  the  language  of  the  country,  as  it  is  throughout  Savoy 
and  Dauphine,  and  in  the  Val  d'Aosta  (where  it  is  the  last  relic  of  former 
Burgundian  rule),  and  the  Vaudois  valleys  of  Piedmont.  With  those  ex- 
ceptions, and  that  of  a  few  parishes  at  the  S.  and  E.  foot  of  Monte  Rosa 
inhabited  by  a  German  population,  Italian  is  spoken  throughout  the 
southern  valleys  of  the  Alps,  including  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Tessin.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Adige,  which  may  be  said  to  cut  through  the  dividing 
range  of  the  Alps,  the  division  between  the  Italian  and  German  population 
lies  rather  S.  of  Bozen.  Elsewhere  it  usually  follows  the  watershed.  But 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  general  rule.  It  is  a  work  of  great 
interest  to  the  philologist  and  to  the  historian  to  trace  the  surviving 
vestiges  which  alone  show  the  former  ethnological  and  linguistic  fluctua- 
tions in  the  Alpine  districts.  Of  especial  interest  are  the  fairly  numerous 
German-speaking  islands  in  the  midst  of  an  Italian  sea.  Chief  of  these 
are  the  thirteenth-century  colonies  from  the  Vallais  to  neighbouring  glens, 
such  as  Val  Formazza  (above  Domodossola),  with  its  offshoot,  Bosco,  or 
even  to  distant  valleys,  such  as  the  Rheinwald  (at  the  chief  sources  of  the 
Rhine),  with  the  adjoining  glens  of  Vals  and  Safien,  and  the  settlement  of 
Obersaxen,  near  Ilanz.*     Davos  itself  was  originally  a  thirteenth-century 

*  On  Bosco  see  Dr.  A.  Baragiola's  book  entitled  77  Canto  popolare  a  Bosco  o  Gurin  (Cividale, 
1 891)  ;  on  the  Val  Formazza  and  the  other  Vallaisan  colonies  see  the  notes  by  the  present  Editor 
(W.  A.  B.  C.)  in  the  preliminary  portion  of  the  Lepontine  Alps  vol.  (1892)  of  the  Climbers' 
Guides  Series,  and  the  same  writer's  essay,  '  Die  deutschredenden  Gemeinden  im  Grauen  oder 
Oberen  Bunde  (Rhatien)  der  Schweiz,'  in  nos.  376-7  (1893)  of  the  Oesterreichische  Alpen-Zeit- 
ung  of  Vienna  ;  on  the  colonies  S.  of  Monte  Rosa,  particularly  at  Macugnaga,  consult  the  notes 
given  in  the  new  edition  of  vol.  i.  of  the  Alpine  Guide,  pp.  493,  518,  521,  524-5,  535,  538,  542, 
as  well  as  Julius  Studer's  Walliser  und  Walser  (Zurich,  1886),  Prof.  H.  Bresslau's  excellent 
article  '  Zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Gemeinden  im  Gebiet  des  Monte  Rosa  und  im  Ossola- 
thal '  (in   vol.  xvi.  part  3  of   Koner's  Zeitschrift  der  Gescllschaft  fi'ir  Erdkunde  zu    Berlin 


GENERAL  ADVICE  TO   TRAVELLERS   IN   THE  ALPS.  x\i\ 

German-speaking  colony  from  the  Vallais  planted  amongst  a  Romance- 
speaking  population.  Further  E.  we  have  the  most  interesting  region 
of  the  Sette  Comuni,  N.  of  Vicenza— a  district  of  table-land  and  mountain 
pastures,  enclosed  between  the  Brenta  and  the  Astico — which  still  speaks 
a  mediaeval  Swabian  dialect,  locally  called  '  Cimbric,5  besides  (to  pass  over 
others)  several  German-speaking  villages  in  the  Fersina  glen,  E.  of  Trent, 
and  those  of  Sauris  in  Friuli.* 

With  scarcely  any  exceptions  the  French,  German,  and  Italian  tongues 
are  not  to  be  heard  in  a  state  of  purity  in  any  part  of  the  Alpine  region. 
Dialects  more  or  less  uncouth  prevail,  though  in  many  cases  these  patois 
preserve  interesting  forms  and  words  which  have  dropped  out  from 
or  have  been  discarded  by  the  literary  tongue.  A  stranger  speaking  the 
latter  will,  however,  always  be  able  to  make  himself  understood,  for  the 
literary  forms  are  now  more  or  less  taught  in  the  schools,  but  he  may 
find  some  trouble  at  first  in  understanding  what  is  said  to  him.t 

Besides  these  three  principal  languages  there  are  at  least  two  others 
which  are  spoken  in  different  parts  of  the  Alps,  and  which  both  possess 
very  great  historical  interest.  One  is  the  old  Raetian  tongue,  which  is 
a  backward  sister  {not  descendant)  of  the  other  great  Romance  languages, 
being,  like  them,  a  form  of  the  \  lingua  rustica  romana,'  though  it  has 
lagged  behind  its  fellows.  It  exists  at  present  in  two  main  dialects 
(there  are  many  sub-dialects).  One  is  the  Romonsch  (this  is  the  proper 
spelling),  spoken  in  the  Vorder  Rhein  valley  (Disentis,  Ilanz,  &c.)  ;  the 
other  is  properly  known  as  Ladin,  and  is  much  more  widely  spread,  being 
spoken  throughout  the  Engadine  and  adjoining  glens,  as  well  as  in 
certain  parts  of  the  Tyrol,  such  as  the  valleys  of  Groden,  Fassa,  Ampezzo, 
and  Buchenstein,  as  well  as  in  far  Friuli. { 

The  second  of  the  minor  languages  spoken  in  the  Alps  is  the  Slavonic 

(Berlin,  1881),  and  A.  Schott's  older  work,  Die  deutschen  Colonien  in  Piemont  (Stuttgart,  1842). 
A  general  view  of  the  subject  is  to  be  found  in  Baron  v.  Czoernig's  Die  deutschen  Sprachinseln 
im  Siidcn  (Klagenfurt,  1889). 

•  As  regards  the  well  known  Sette  Comuni,  it  may  suffice  to  mention  G.  Nolli's  Ristretto  di 
nozioni  storichc  ed  economiche  intorno  ai  Sette  Comuni  (Asiago,  1880)  and  the  accurate  notice  in 
Signor  O.  Brentari's  Guida  Storico-Aipino  di  Bassano,  Sette  Comuni,  &c.  (Bassano,  1885). 
As  to  Fersina,  see  a  pamphlet  by  Hans  Leek,  entitled  Deutsche  Sprachinseln  in  II  Yilschtirol 
(Stuttgart,  1884),  an  article  (without  date  or  place)  by  Anton  Zingerle,  named  Die  deutschen 
Gemeinden  im  Fersinathal,  and  the  careful  notice  in  Signor  Otto  Brentari's  Guida  del  Trent  i  no, 
part  i.  (Bassano,  1891),  pp.  272-85.  For  Sauris  consult  G.  Marinelli's  Guida  del/a  Car*/a(Udine, 
1898),  pp.  1 2 1-6,  508-13,  Baron  v.  Czoernig's  article  in  the  1880  vol.  of  the  Zeitschrift  of  the 
German  and  Austrian  Alpine  Club,  his  pamphlet  mentioned  in  the  preceding  note,  and  another 
article  by  Herr  J.  Pock  in  the  1897  vol.  of  the  Zeitschrift. 

t  For  various  French  Alpine  patois  the  following  works  may  be  consulted  with  advantage  : — 
F.  N.  Nicollet's  Etudes  sur  les  Patois  du  Midi  de  la  France (Gap,  1897);  J.  A.  Chabran 
A.  de  Rochas  d'Aiglun's  Patois  des  Alpes  Cottiennes  (Brianfonnais  et  I  'allocs  laiuloises),  et 
en  particulier  du  Queyras  (Grenoble  and  Paris,  1877);  F.  Brachet's  Pictionnairc  du  Patois 
Savoyard  til  quit  est  parti  dans  le  Canton  d  Albcrhnlle  (2nd  edition,  Albertvilje,  1889);  and  J. 
Gillie>on's  Patois  de  la  Commune  de  Vionnaz  (Bas-  Calais),  published  in  Paris  in  1880  as  no.  40 
of  the  '  Bibliotheque  de  l'Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  ; '  a  Dictionary  of  tin-  Swiss- Fren<  h  patois  of 
Switzerland  is  in  preparation.  The  general  subject  of  German  Alpine  patois  may  1><-  studied 
in  A.  Socins  Schr  ij tsfrrache  und  Dialekte  im  Dcutsclien  (Heilbronn,  1888),  while  the  magnificent 
■German  I  )ialect  Dictionary  (the  Schweizcrisches  Idiotikon),  which  has  been  in  course  of 
publication  since  1881  (it  has  now  reached  the  letter 'P'),  and  Stalder's  older  works,  I'ersuch 
eines  Schiveizerischen  Idiotikon  (2  vols.  Aarau,  1806-1812),  and  Die  Landcssprachen  dcr 
SckwetM  (Aarau,  1819),  will  be  helpful  for  the  Swiss  side  of  the  mi 

%  The  Romonsch  may  be  best  studied  in  Dr.  C.  Decurtins'  R&toromaniscke  Glnrstomathic 
(4  parts  published  at  Erlangen  between  1884  and  1806);  while  Z.  Pallioppi's  great  Dictionary  of 
the  Engadine  Form  of  Ladin  (Samaden,  1895),  and  Prof.  J.  Alton's  Die  Ladinischen  Idiomc  in 


XXX  INTRODUCTION. 

dialect,  which  extends  through  the  Julie  Alps,  the  Karawankas,  and  some 
other  parts  of  Carinthia,  Carniola,  and  Styria.  German  is,  however, 
spoken  by  all  the  younger  natives,  so  that  a  traveller  need  apprehend 
but  little  trouble  from  this  cause.  He  should,  nevertheless,  bear  in  mind 
that  each  place  in  those  regions  has  a  German  as  well  as  a  Slavonic 
name,  and  very  often  an  Italian  name  also,  so  that,  as  these  are  some- 
times quite  unlike  each  other,  care  is  needed  to  avoid  mistakes,  which 
may  lead  to  considerable  practical  inconvenience. 

For  the  mere  purpose  of  living  at  hotels  an  English  traveller  knowing 
only  French  or  only  German  will,  as  a  rule,  save  in  very  remote  spots, 
meet  with  no  serious  difficulty,  as  almost  everywhere  in  inns  frequented  by 
travellers  the  servants  speak  one  or  two,  or  sometimes  even  four,  of  the 
chief  languages  of  Europe.  In  Switzerland,  except  in  out  of  the  way 
places,  English  is  spoken  in  all  large  inns  and  most  shops.  Hence  those 
enterprising  Britons  who  travel  on  the  Continent  with  no  other  medium 
of  communication  than  their  native  tongue  and  a  well  filled  purse  should 
confine  themselves  to  the  beaten  tracks  in  Switzerland  or  Italy,  and 
avoid  all  but  the  chief  places  in  France  and  Austria. 

Expenses  of  Travelling. — The  habits  and  wants  of  travellers  are  so 
various  that  nothing  approaching  a  general  estimate  of  the  expenses  of 
a  tour  can  be  given.  To  a  considerable  extent  these  vary  also  according 
to  the  district  visited.  It  is  not,  however,  difficult  for  a  traveller  to  form 
an  estimate  for  himself,  so  that  in  this  place  it  is  only  necessary  to 
mention  some  general  considerations. 

A  pedestrian,  carrying  his  own  knapsack,  and  contenting  himself  with 
ordinary  fare  and  accommodation,  can  get  on  for  a  few  francs  a  day 
anywhere.  But  extra  good  food,  wine,  or  rooms,  or  frequent  hiring  of 
carriages  or  guides,  will,  of  course,  raise  the  expenditure  almost  to  any 
extent.  If  the  party  include  ladies,  further  expenditure  becomes  desirable, 
while  the  mountaineer  making  many  high  ascents,  retaining  the  services 
of  good  guides  for  some  weeks,  and  often  taking  provisions  up  to  Club 
huts,  will  spend  most  of  all,  though  in  his  case  the  pleasure  (at  least  in 
his  belief)  is  worth  the  apparently  high  cost  of  his  tour.  It  should  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  high  charges  of  mountain  hotels,  not  accessible 
by  railway,  and  open  during  a  short  period  specially  for  the  advantage 
of  a  comparatively  small  number  of  travellers,  are  justified,  and  should 
not  be  complained  of.  Most  hotels,  even  in  the  height  of  the  season, 
receive  at  reduced  fixed  rates  travellers  who  spend  there  at  least  five  or 
seven  days.  This  is  the  most  convenient  and  most  economical  system 
for  a  traveller  who  is  not  in  a  hurry,  and  does  not  intend  to  absent  himself 
from  the  valleys  or  mountain  inns  for  several  days  in  order  to  make  high 
ascents.  The  rates  of pension  vary,  of  course,  according  to  accommodation 
&c.  In  Switzerland  there  are  many  comfortable,  clean  inns  where  only 
5  to  6  francs  are  charged  a  day  in  summer  ;  the  present  writer  ( W. A. B.C.) 
is  acquainted  with  many  pleasant  little  Swiss  inns,  not  on  the  beaten 
track,  where  the  pension  varies  from  3^  to  5  francs  a  day.  In  Switzerland 
the  highest  rates  in  the  mountains  do  not  exceed   12  to   15  francs.     The 

Ladinien,  Grodcn,  Fassa,  Buchenstein,  Ampezzo  (Innsbruck,  1879)  wiH  supply  much  informa- 
tion as  to  the  Ladin  branch  of  this  curious  survival,  which  is  everywhere  retiring  before  the  en- 
croachments of  German  and  Italian. 


GENERAL  ADVICE   TO    TRAVELLERS    IN   THE   ALPS.  xxxi 

most  minute  information  as  to  the  prices  of  Swiss  inns  is  given  in  'The 
Hotels  of  Switzerland,'  a  work  published  annually  at  Basel  by  the  '  Associa- 
tion of  Swiss  Hotel  Proprietors  and  Managers,'  and  to  be  obtained  from 
their  central  office  at  Basel  for  20  cents,  (within  Switzerland)  or  40  cents. 
(Postal  Union)  post-free.  It  is  an  exceedingly  useful  and  trustworthy 
compendium  of  information. 

In  some  parts  of  France  and  Italy  prices  range  higher  than  in  Switzer- 
land, the  accommodation,  too,  not  always  being  suited  to  the  wants  of 
English  travellers.  In  the  Eastern  Alps  the  principal  mountain  hotels 
are  far  from  being  as  good  as  their  Swiss  rivals,  while  relatively  more 
expensive  ;  in  the  remoter  districts  of  the  Eastern  Alps  modest  accommo- 
dation can  be  obtained  at  about  the  same  prices  as  in  Switzerland.  When 
the  traveller  has  made  the  best  possible  estimate  of  the  sum  he  is  likely 
to  require  for  his  Alpine  tour,  he  should  leave  an  ample  margin  for 
unforeseen  expenses  and  for  his  fare  from  England  and  back.  The 
worry  of  finding  that  he  has  expended  the  exact  sum  allowed  for 
his  whole  journey,  and  of  having  no  reserve  in  hand,  seriously  takes 
away  from  the  pleasure  of  his  trip,  and  may  sometimes  be  extremely 
awkward.  In  Article  I.  some  advice  is  given  as  to  the  best  ways  of 
carrying  or  procuring  money  during  a  journey.  It  is  only  necessary 
here  once  more  to  insist  on  the  importance  of  being  provided  witn  small 
change,  the  want  of  which  causes  inconvenience  and  loss. 

General  Rules  for  Travelling. — Of  these  it  would  be  easy  to  make  a 
long  list ;  a  few  only  are  here  noted. 

It  is  generally  necessary  to  arrive  at  large  foreign  railway  stations 
20  or  30  minutes  before  the  hour  fixed  for  the  departure  of  the  train. 
Failing  this,  difficulties  are  made  as  to  receiving  luggage,  and  in  the 
season  there  is  a  great  bustle. 

All  arrangements  for  vehicles,  mules,  ordinary  guides,  or  porters  should 
be  made  overnight.  He  who  waits  till  next  morning  will  find  inferior 
articles  and  higher  prices. 

Avoid  sleeping  with  open  windows  in  low  valleys,  especially  those 
liable  to  inundation. 

Advice  as  to  dietary  is  little  needed,  as  most  people  in  good  health 
can  live  on  the  food  they  find  on  their  road.  It  may  be  noted  that 
Alpine  mutton  is  too  often  tough  and  stringy.  Veal  and  fowls  are 
usually  the  best  meat.  Chamois  venison,  when  in  good  condition  and 
kept  long  enough,  is  good,  but  is  rarely  eaten  in  perfection.  Trout  are 
delicate  eating,  but  are  sometimes  rather  dear.  The  same  may  be 
of  ptarmigan  and  cog  de  bruytre.  The  latter  is  excellent,  but  not  often 
to  be  had. 

For  longer  expeditions  there  is  now  a  great  variety  of  tinned  provisions 
of  more  or  less  palatable  kinds.  In  the  principal  tourist  resorts  main 
English  articles  of  all  kinds  may  now  be  purchased  during  the  summer 
season. 

Very  fair  wine  is  made  in  the  Cantons  of  Neuchatel,  Vaud,  and  Vallais 
in  Switzerland,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chambery  in  Savoy,  in  the  Val 
d'Aosta,  and  in  the  Valtellina,  round  Meran  and  Bozett,  and  in  the  valleys 
near  Verona  ;  but  the  better  qualities  are  rarely  found  in  inns.  Those  \\  h<  1 
dislike  the  ordinary  wine  may  best  drink  Beaujolais,  a  sound  red  «rm«5 


xxxil  INTRODUCTION. 

found  at  most  inns  in  Switzerland  and  Savoy.  Some  persons  like  Asti 
wine,  a  sweetish  insipid  liquor,  usually  to  be  had  in  Piedmont,  and  in 
many  Swiss  inns.  Barbera  is  a  strong  and  rough  but  sound  Piedmontese 
wine,  which  is  found  in  Italian  towns  ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  no  wine 
but  that  of  the  district  is  to  be  had  at  Italian  country  inns.  Many 
travellers  like  the  effervescing  lemonade,  which,  under  the  name  limonade 
gazeuse,  is  found  almost  everywhere,  as  is  also  light  and  harmless  beer. 

Most  of  the  requisites  for  travelling  are  enumerated  in  Art.  VI.  as 
especially  important  to  pedestrians.  A  few  universal  requisites  may  be 
noted  here. 

Stationery,  including  writing-paper,  pens,  ink,  pencils,  and  drawing 
materials  for  those  who  use  them,  are  best  obtained  in  London. 
Adhesive  luggage-labels,  and  also  those  of  parchment,  and  a  strap  for 
fastening  together  plaids  and  other  loose  articles  should  not  be  omitted. 
Many  travellers  carry  a  telescope  ;  but  except  for  chamois-hunting, 
where  it  is  indispensable,  this  is  rarely  useful.  An  opera  glass  of 
moderate  size  is  much  lighter,  and  more  useful.  It  also  turns  to  account 
in  visiting  picture  galleries,  theatres,  &c. 

When  all  other  requisites  have  been  supplied,  the  most  important  of  all 
must  be  found  by  the  traveller  himself.  Good  temper  and  good  humour 
are  the  only  things  quite  indispensable  for  the  enjoyment  of  travelling. 
It  is  not  wise  to  yield  too  easily  to  the  demands  that  are  pressed  upon  a 
stranger,  and  every  now  and  then  a  show  of  anger  may  be  requisite  to 
defeat  imposition  ;  but  a  man  who  when  travelling  labours  under  the 
impression  that  all  the  world  is  combined  in  a  conspiracy  to  maltreat  and 
overreach  him,  and  who  loses  his  self-possession  in  a  dispute  about  a 
franc,  or  because  a  waiter  is  slow  to  answer  his  summons,  will  consult  his 
own  peace  and  the  convenience  of  others  by  staying  at  home. 


Art.  VZ. — Advice  to  Pedestrians. 

There  are  few  men  in  tolerably  good  health  who  are  not  able  to  walk 
quite  enough  to  enable  them  (and  this  applies  also  to  more  ladies  than 
formerly)  to  enjoy  nearly  all  the  finest  scenery  in  the  Alps.  The  process 
of  training  is  to  some  rather  irksome,  and  it  varies  from  a  few  days  to 
two  or  three  weeks,  according  to  the  constitution  and  previous  habits  ; 
but  this  once  accomplished,  the  unanimous  testimony  of  all  who  have 
tried  this  manner  of  life  declares  that  there  is  none  other  so  enjoyable, 
and  none  so  healthful  for  mind  and  body.  Some  patience  and  judicious 
preparation  are  needed  to  arrive  at  that  delightful  condition  in  which  any 
reasonable  amount  of  exertion  is  borne  without  fatigue,  and  a  man,  after 
a  previous  day's  walk  of  30  miles  over  mountain  and  glacier,  rises  with 
the  sun,  refreshed  and  ready  for  fresh  enterprise.  Assuming  that,  on 
reaching  the  Alps,  a  traveller  is  not  already  in  good  training,  he  must 
carefully  avoid  overworking  himself  at  first.  He  cannot  begin  better 
(if  his  time  allows)  than  by  making  the  ascent  of  some  one  of  those  minor 
summits  that  are  placed  round  the  outer  margin  of  the  great  chain,  and 
command  views  that  often  rival  in  beauty  the  panoramas  from  the  higher 
peaks.    Such  are  the  Moucherotte,  the  Mont  Revard,  Dent  du  Chat,  Mont 


ADVICE   TO   PEDESTRIANS.  xxxiii 

Granier,  and  Grand  Som,  in  the  French  Alps  ;  the  Dole,  Weissenstein, 
Chaumont,  Rigi,  Pilatus,  Niesen,  Santis,  and  Hohenkasten,  in  Switzer- 
land ;  the  Besimauda,  Mottarone,  Monte  Generoso,  Sasso  del  Ferro,  Corno 
di  Canzo,  and  Ritten,  more  to  the  S.  and  E.  ;  and  very  many  others  that 
might  be  added  to  the  list.  On  arriving  at  some  place  that  serves  for  head- 
quarters, it  becomes  easy  for  a  man  to  graduate  the  length  and  difficulty 
of  his  excursions  to  his  increasing  powers,  being  careful,  whenever  he 
feels  somewhat  overtired,  to  make  the  following  a  day  of  comparative 
rest. 

If  his  design  be  to  carry  his  pack  himself,  he  will  do  wisely  to  begin 
with  very  short  journeys.  For  the  first  few  days  it  is  felt  as  a  decided 
encumbrance,  and  somewhat  increases  the  labour  of  the  day's  work  ;  but 
after  a  short  time  the  muscles  become  adapted  to  the  effort,  and  it  is 
scarcely  found  to  make  any  difference,  except  to  persons  with  tender  feet, 
who  are  apt  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  additional  weight.  For  travellers 
who  have  not  the  instinctive  faculty  of  finding  their  way  without  a  guide, 
there  is  no  inducement  to  take  the  trouble  of  carrying  their  own  packs  ; 
but  quite  apart  from  the  saving,  which  to  many  may  be  a  matter  of 
indifference,  the  keen  sense  of  absolute  freedom  and  independence,  and 
the  intense  enjoyment  of  nature,  unbroken  by  the  presence  of  even  the 
most  satisfactory  guide,  are  motives  enough  to  tempt  many  a  man  to 
rely  on  himself  for  his  means  of  conveyance  in  the  Alps.  The  writer 
(J.  B.)  warmly  admires  and  sympathises  with  the  feelings  of  those  who 
have  developed  the  ardent  and  aspiring  style  of  mountaineering  that  has 
so  largely  increased  our  knowledge  of  the  Alps,  and  all  but  '  effaced  the 
word  "  inaccessible  "  from  the  Alpine  dictionary  ; '  but,  for  the  sake  of 
the  next  generation,  he  would  think  it  a  matter  for  regret  if  the  life  of 
Alpine  travellers  were  to  be  always  one  of  struggle  and  warfare.  There 
is  a  keen  pleasure  in  storming  some  citadel  of  nature,  hewing  the  way 
axe  in  hand,  or  clambering  up  some  precipitous  outwork  ;  but  the  re- 
collections of  days  of  solitary  enjoyment  amid  more  accessible  and  not 
less  sublime  scenery  leave  an  impression  no  less  deep  and  abiding. 

Equipment  of  a  Pedestrian. — It  need  hardly  be  said  that  tempera- 
ments are  variable,  and  that  what  suits  many  travellers  does  not  necessarily 
suit  all.  The  inexperienced  will  do  well  to  try,  in  the  first  place,  what  has 
been  found  useful  by  others.  The  following  hints  are  chiefly  meant  for 
those  who  undertake  minor  Alpine  expeditions,  though  some  notes  are 
added  (especially  under  3)  which  may  be  useful  to  those  meditating  high 
and  difficult  climbs.  The  latter  class  of  travellers  will,  of  course,  consult 
the  Report  of  a  Special  Committee  of  the  Alpine  Club  on  '  Equipment  for 
Mountaineers,'  issued  with  the  '  Alpine  Journal'  for  May,  1892, and  to  be 
had  as  a  separate  pamphlet  from  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Alpine 
Club,  23  Savile  Row,  W.,  post  free  for  yd. 

1.  Clothing. — An  Alpine  traveller  is  occasionally  exposed  to  cold  and 
piercing  winds,  but  also  to  great  heat,  as  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  clear 
weather  have  a  force  which  is  quite  unknown  in  England.  A  shooting 
coat  or  Norfolk  jacket  is  the  best  pattern  for  a.  coat.  It  maybe  made 
entirely  of  wool,  though  there  is  much  to  be  said  for  Swiss  (especially 
Oberland)  homespun,  its  extra  weight  being  compensated  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  very  warm  and  practically  waterproof.     It  is  tempting  to  have 

b 


XXXIV  INTRODUCTION. 

many  pockets  in  the  coat,  but  this  means  that  it  becomes  weighted  down 
with  many  articles,  and  cannot  well  be  taken  off  in  very  hot  weather.  In 
any  case  there  should  be  at  least  one  inside  pocket  large  enough  to  hold 
a  folded  map,  while  every  pocket  should  be  made  to  fasten  tight  outside 
by  means  of  tabs  or  buttons.  The  waistcoat  too  should  be  woollen,  and 
should  contain  inside  pockets  for  money  and  other  valuables.  K?iicker- 
bockers  are  now  almost  universally  worn,  even  by  some  Swiss  guides,  and 
by  all  guides  in  the  Tyrol.  In  that  case  stockings  become  of  great 
importance.  These  (or  socks)  should  be  hand-knitted,  and  very  stout — 
they  are  best  obtained  in  Switzerland  or  other  parts  of  the  Alps.  Gaiters 
too  are  important  for  those  who  propose  to  be  much  in  the  snow  region. 
By  far  the  best  kind  are  those  of  ordinary  stout  homespun,  worn  among 
the  mountains  in  summer  and  all  through  the  winter  by  the  men  of  the 
Bernese  Oberland — they  are  fastened  by  a  chain  that  passes  under  the 
hollow  of  the  boot,  and  are  made  to  fasten  with  hooks  and  eyes,  which 
are  much  handier  than  buttons  or  straps  when  the  gaiters  are  wet. 

The  shirt  should  be  of  thick  flannel  (grey  best),  thoroughly  shrunk.  A 
collar  is  not  always  convenient  when  walking,  but  the  change  shirt  for 
evenings  in  hotels  should  certainly  have  one  attached.  A  watch  pocket 
in  the  shirt  is  often  convenient.  Some  climbers  prefer  to  a  shirt  a  woollen 
combination  garment. 

The  hat  should  be  of  felt,  broad  in  the  brim,  and  soft,  so  that  in  case  of 
necessity  it  may  be  folded  down  and  tied  about  the  ears,  and  grey  in 
colour,  as  that  attracts  the  sun's  rays  less  than  any  other  colour.  For  pro- 
tection against  extreme  cold  or  high  wind  a  woollen  knitted  helmet,  such 
as  is  sometimes  used  for  skating,  is  useful.  It  should  cover  the  whole 
head,  save  the  face,  and  be  made  to  pull  on.  Some  prefer  a  tweed  cap, 
with  flaps  for  the  neck  and  ears,  but  this  does  not  afford  so  much  protec- 
tion as  a  woollen  helmet.  In  fine  weather,  however,  the  wearers  of  either 
are  very  much  exposed  to  the  pitiless  rays  of  the  sun. 

Mittens  are  better  than  gloves.  They  should  be  hand-knitted,  and 
have  but  two  pods,  one  for  the  thumb,  the  other  for  all  the  fingers  to- 
gether, which  thus  better  retain  their  heat  than  when  each  has  its  own 
pod. 

A   silk   or   woollen  muffler  or   large   handkerchief  is   indispensable. 

Many  consider  a  waterproof  coat  a.  necessity.  It  should  not  be  very  long, 
and  should  be  made  of  some  stout  waterproof  material.  In  the  Tyrol 
light  short  cloaks  ( Wettermantel)  of  a  loose  homespun  (weighing  about 
3  lbs.)  and  long  enough  to  cover  the  rucksack,  carried  on  the  back,  are 
very  popular.  But  if  the  suit  worn  is  really  good  (especially  the  Ober- 
land homespun)  any  waterproof  coat  is  quite  unnecessary.  Beginners 
should  be  warned  that  long  thin  caoutchouc  coats,  coming  down  to  the 
feet,  are  very  inconvenient  while  walking,  do  not  really  protect  the  legs 
from  wet,  and  are  extremely  liable  to  be  soon  torn  and  so  completely 
ruined. 

Mr.  Ball  recommended  a  Scotch  plaid ;  but,  though  useful  in  certain 
cases,  it  is  much  too  heavy  to  be  carried  on  a  long  expedition,  save,  of 
course,  for  use  at  a  camp. 

The  covering  and  protection  of  the  feet  is  to  the  pedestrian  a  matter  of 
the  first  importance.     The  boots  cannot  be  too  strong,  solid,  and  durable 


ADVICE  TO  PEDESTRIANS.  XXXV 

in  workmanship.  They  should  come  up  to  the  ankles,  and  be  fastened 
by  leather  laces.  (Elastic  sides  have  many  drawbacks.)  The  tongue 
should  be  let  into  the  uppers  on  both  sides  of  the  opening,  so  as  to  be 
water-tight  up  to  the  top  of  the  boot.  The  heels  should  be  large  and 
rather  low.  One  most  important  point  is  that  the  soles  (not  necessarily 
the  heel)  shall  project  all  round  the  uppers.  The  nails  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  clamp  over  the  lower  edge  of  this  projecting  rim,  in  order 
to  afford  protection  from  stones,  &c.  It  is  best  not  to  have  nails  in  the 
centre  of  the  sole,  but  both  edges  of  the  sole  and  the  heel  should  be  well 
supplied  with  them.  The  front  part  of  the  boot  should  be  long  and  broad, 
while  the  boot  should  fit  easily,  as  otherwise  a  steep  descent  of  many 
thousands  of  feet  will  be  found  most  trying.  An  easy,  comfortable  fit  is 
extremely  important,  and  if  the  boot  be  found  here  and  there  too  loose  it 
is  easy  to  put  on  a  second  pair  of  socks,  or  one  extra  thick  pair.  A  supply 
of  spare  laces  should  never  be  forgotten.  By  far  the  most  suitable  boots 
for  the  purpose  are  to  be  purchased  in  the  Alps,  as  the  shoemakers  there 
know  by  practical  experience  what  is  required,  and  what  will  best  stand 
rough  wear  and  tear.  Some  like  an  iron  cap  to  protect  the  toes  of  the 
boot.  Every  one  with  the  least  experience  knows  that  it  is  rash  to 
commence  walking  in  new  boots.  They  should  be  worn  for  three  or 
four  weeks  beforehand. 

Slippers  are  essential.  They  should  be  of  leather  (with  elastic  sides) 
and  strong  enough  for  wear  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  Club  hut  or  hotel. 
A  lighter  pair  of  slippers  for  use  exclusively  in  the  house  is  convenient. 

2.  Knapsack  or  Rucksack. — Formerly  knapsacks  of  various  patterns, 
though  all  having  a  stiff  back,  were  universally  employed.  But  of  recent 
years  they  have  been  largely  superseded  by  '  rucksacks/  a  bag  of  strong 
canvas,  closed  at  the  top  by  a  cord,  and  carried  by  broad  straps,  so  placed 
that  the  pack  lies  in  the  hollow  of  the  wearer's  back  in  a  very  comfortable 
and  easy  fashion.  Originally  brought  from  the  Tyrol,  they  may  now  be 
found  in  most  parts  of  Switzerland,  and  rucksacks  of  local  manufacture 
are  used  by  all  the  Grindelwald  guides.  If  the  canvas  is  stout  enough 
there  is  practically  no  danger  of  rain  or  snow  working  through  it.  But  if 
it  is  desired  to  use  special  precautions  it  is  best  not  to  have  the  bag  lined 
with  waterproof,  but  to  have  a  movable  light  waterproof  bag  which,  after 
being  packed,  can  be  slipped  bodily  into  the  rucksack.  The  rucksack 
should  have  two  inside  pockets  and  two  outside  pockets,  as  well  as  a  pair 
of  straps  on  top  for  carrying  coat  or  gaiters  when  not  in  use,  while 
it  is  convenient  to  have  a  canvas  partition  dividing  the  bag  into  two 
compartments. 

3.  Ice  Axes  and  otner  Articles  for  Mountaineers. — he  axes  are 
very  important  articles  to  Alpine  travellers,  even  to  those  who  do  not 
propose  to  cut  steps  themselves.  If  they  do,  the  axe  must  be  extra 
heavy  and  strong.  Otherwise  a  lighter  weapon  is  advisable.  The 
handle  of  the  axe  should  be  of  such  length  as  to  reach  up  to  the  armpit 
of  its  owner.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  securing  the  head  on  to  the 
handle.  By  far  the  best  axes  are  made  in  Switzerland,  and  may  be 
purchased  there  in  all  the  chief  Alpine  centres.  Those  used  by  the 
Grindelwald  guides  (who  are  at  the  very  head  of  their  profession)  are 
manufactured  by  Christian  Schenk,  blacksmith,  of  Grindelwald. 

b  2 


xxxvi  INTRODUCTION. 

Next  to  the  ice  axe  comes  in  point  of  importance  the  rope.  A  feu 
prefer  silk  ropes,  which  are  light  indeed,  but  liable  to  snap  under  a  great 
strain,  and  very  unpleasant  to  handle  when  wet.  The  best  rope  is  made 
of  Manilla  hemp,  and  is  supplied  under  the  name  of  '  Alpine  Club  rope,' 
by  Messrs.  Beale  and  Cloves  (late  John  Buckingham),  194  Shaftesbury 
Avenue,  W.C.  A  length  of  fifty  feet  suffices  for  a  party  of  three.  Of 
course  the  rope  must  be  carefully  examined  from  time  to  time  to  see  if 
it  shows  sign  of  wear,  but  as  a  rule  a  rope  will  not  be  worth  much  after 
it  has  been  through  one  hard  summer's  climbing. 

Crampons,  or  Steigreisen,  are  irons  (with  several  points  turned  down- 
wards) a  little  wider  than  the  sole  of  the  boot,  and  attached  to  it  by 
leather  straps.  They  are  convenient  on  a  slope  of  hard  snow,  when  the 
points  pierce  the  snow,  and  so  do  away  with  the  necessity  of  cutting 
steps.  But  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt  to  use  them  on  ice  slopes,  while 
on  rocks  they  are  an  encumbrance  and  must  be  taken  off.  They  have 
never  come  into  favour  with  English  mountaineers,  but  are  very  much 
used  in  the  Tyrol,  where  they  can  best  be  purchased.  A  somewhat 
analogous  artificial  aid  is  that  of  the  four  sharp  iron  spikes  (an  inch  or 
more  in  length)  which  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  especially  in  the  Bernese 
Oberland,  are  driven  into  the  heel  of  the  boot  at  the  corners  or  edges  : 
they  are  designed  to  enable  the  men  coming  down  in  winter  with  heavy 
wood  sledges  to  get  a  grip  in  the  ice  or  snow  in  the  track,  and  will  be 
found  very  handy  by  travellers  wishing  to  make  winter  excursions, 
though  not  suited  for  high  ascents. 

Wine  is  best  carried  in  long  tin  rounded  bottles,  made  to  fit  into  the 
inner  or  outer  pockets  of  the  rucksack.  India  rubber  should  be  carefully 
avoided  for  bottles  as  well  as  for  drinking  cups,  leather  being  the  best 
material  for  the  latter.  Spectacles  with  smoked  glasses  {not  blue)  and 
with  velvet  round  the  edge  of  the  wire  network  are  most  to  be  recom- 
mended, while  for  lanterns  the  Italian  pattern  known  as  i Excelsior'  is 
the  most  suitable  in  every  way. 

Among  minor  articles  are  a  strong  knife  (with  corkscrew),  a  field  glass, 
some  spare  bits  of  strong  twine,  spare  boot  laces,  vaseline  for  sun-burn, 
and  lip  salve  to  prevent  cracked  lips  ;  but  every  traveller  will  of  course 
make,  and  always  carefully  consult,  a  *  Rucksack  List '  for  himself. 

4.  Sundries. — Washing  materials  may  be  most  compactly  carried  in  a 
small  sheet  of  mackintosh,  with  pockets  for  soap,  or  in  a  small  bag  of  the 
same  material.  A  little  arnica,  adhesive  plaster,  and  lint  are  useful  in 
the  case  of  wounds  or  bruises.  Maps  should  never  be  forgotten  (it  is 
best  to  carry  them  in  a  transparent  oiled  silk  case),  nor  the  guide- 
book and  the  compass.  Smokers  will  not  forget  to  carry  all  materials 
for  their  favourite  indulgence,  while  botanists  will  add  a  quire  of  soft  thick 
paper,  and  a  sheet  of  light  pasteboard  of  the  same  size.  There  will 
generally  be  a  few  maps  and  guide-books  not  in  actual  use,  while  some 
(especially  if  they  do  not  carry  the  bag  themselves)  will  add  a  favourite 
book  or  two  to  while  away  weary  hours  when  storm-bound  in  a  Club 
hut. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  anything  here  about  tents  and  other  elabo- 
rate arrangements  required  by  a  party  making  a  camp  high  up  in  the 
mountains.     Much  useful  information  on  that  subject,  as  well  as  regards 


ADVICE   TO  -PEDESTRIANS.  xxxvii 

the  various  kinds  of  tinned  provisions,  maybe  found  in  the  Report  of  the 
Special  Committee  of  the  Alpine  Club  referred  to  at  the  opening  of  this 
Article. 

Art.    VII. — On    Mountaineering-.* 

Its  Difficulties  and  Dangers.— Needful  Precautions. 

All  active  exercises  and  athletic  sports  require  a  certain  amount  of 
training,  in  order  that  the  muscles  and  senses  may  be  used  to  act  together. 
Most  Englishmen  acquire  in  early  life  habits  of  bodily  activity  that  make 
mountaineering  come  easy  to  them,  and  what  more  is  required  must  be 
gained  by  experience.  A  few  hints  may,  however,  not  be  thrown  away 
upon  beginners.  The  quality  of  sure-footedness — a  mountaineer's  first 
desideratum—  depends  upon  two  habits,  both  easily  acquired  :  first,  that 
of  lifting  the  foot  well  from  the  ground,  and  bringing  it  down  at  once  ; 
secondly,  that  of  observing  the  spot  on  which  the  foot  is  to  rest.  It  is  not 
mainly  in  order  to  choose  the  ground  for  each  footstep  that  this  is  useful, 
though  in  some  places  it  is  requisite  to  do  so  ;  the  chief  advantage  is  that 
the  muscles,  being  warned  by  the  eye,  are  prepared  for  the  precise  exertion 
that  is  wanted  at  the  moment.  If  aware  that  the  next  step  is  to  be  on 
rock  worn  smooth,  an  instinctive  movement  of  the  body  is  made  to  main- 
tain the  hold  of  the  ground,  when  otherwise  a  slip  would  be  inevitable. 
In  the  same  way  a  suitable  slight  effort  often  prevents  debris  from  slipping, 
but  here  the  choice  of  the  particular  stone  on  which  the  foot  is  to  rest 
becomes  important.  With  habit,  the  slightest  glance  at  the  ground  is 
sufficient,  and  the  process  is  an  almost  unconscious  one. 

One  of  the  chief  uses  of  the  ice  axe  or  alpenstock  is  in  descending  over 
steep  and  rough  ground.  Grasping  the  pole  in  both  hands,  the  whole 
weight  of  the  body  may  be  safely  thrown  back  upon  the  point,  and  in  a 

*  On  the  general  subject  of  Mountaineering  the  reader  should  consult  the  vol.  (by  Mr.  C  T. 
Dent  and  others)  in  the  '  Badminton  '  Series  entitled  Mountaineering  (1892 — revised  German 
translation  at  Leipzig  in  1893),  or  Dr.  Claude  Wilson's  smaller  work  with  the  same  title  (1893) 
in  the  '  All- England'  Series,  or  Herr  J.  Meurer's  Handbuch  des  Atyinen  Sport  (1882). 

On  the  dangers  of  mountaineering  the  best  works  are  Herr  Emil  Zsigmondy's  Die  Gefahnu 
der  Alpen  (1885:  French  translation  published  at  Neuchatel  in  1886),  and  Signori  Fiorio  an<l 
Ratti's  /  Pericoli  delV  Alpinismo  (published  at  Turin  in  1889  with  no.  55  of  the  Bolltt: 
the  Italian  Alpine  Club.  The  English  reader  will  not  fail  to  study  carefully  Mr.  Leslie  Stephen's 
essay  on  the  subject  in  his  Playground  of  Europe  (1871  :  but  unluckily  not  reprinted  in  the 
editions  of  1894  and  1899). 

The  following  are  the  dates  at  which  the  principal  European  Alpine  Clubs  were  founded  (m£ 
a  full  account  in  the  Bollettino  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  for  1880  and  1884)  :— 

1857.     The  Alpine  Club  (A.C.) 

1862.  Austrian  Alpine  Club,  which  in    1873  was  fused  with  the  German  Alpii  • 

(founded  in  1869)  under  the  name  of  the  '  German  and  Austrian  Alpine  Club  ' 
(D.  und  Oe.A.V.) 

1863.  Swiss  Alpine  Club  (S.A.C.) 
Italian  Alpine  Club  (C.A.I.) 

1869.  Austrian  Touristen-Club  (Oe.T.C.) 

1872.  Tridentine  Alpine  Society  (S.A.T. ) 

1874.  French  Alpine  Club  (C.A.F.) 

1875.  Soci6t6  des  Touristes  du  Dauphine"  (S.'I  .  1 1 . 1 
1878.  Austrian  Alpine  Club  (Oe.A.C.) 

1 882.     Belgian  Alpine  Club  (C.  A .  1 1 . ) 

There  are  many  other  Alpine  Societies  of  a  more  purely  local  character. 


xxxvili  INTRODUCTION. 

few  minutes  it  is  easy  to  clear  by  a  succession  of  leaps  a  distance  which 
otherwise  would  require  thrice  the  time.  It  is  often  necessary  to  pass  at 
a  level  along  the  face  of  a  very  steep  slope.  The  beginner,  involuntarily 
shrinking  from  the  apparent  danger,  is  apt  to  lean  in  the  opposite 
direction.  This  is  a  mistake,  as  by  causing  an  outward  thrust  of  the  foot 
the  risk  of  slipping  is  much  increased.  In  all  such  places  the  body  should 
be  kept  perfectly  upright,  and  the  ice  axe  or  alpenstock  held  in  both  hands 
ready  to  steady  the  balance,  or  by  a  bold  thrust  at  the  ascending  slope  to 
stay  the  movement  if  the  foot  should  begin  to  slip.  It  must  be  recollected 
that  wherever  the  ice  axe  or  alpenstock  is  really  wanted,  it  must  be  held  in 
both  hands.  On  very  steep  ground  it  is  sometimes  extremely  difficult  to 
avoid  detaching  loose  fragments  of  rock,  which  may  be  a  source  of  real 
danger  to  the  traveller's  companions.  When  possible,  especially  in  a 
descent,  it  is  best  to  take  slightly  different  lines,  so  that  the  foremost  shall 
not  be  in  the  way  of  stones  sent  down  by  the  next  comer.  When  this  is 
not  possible,  the  best  plan  is  for  the  party  to  keep  close  together.  The 
risk  of  harm  is  much  less  when  the  detached  stone  has  not  acquired  a 
dangerous  velocity. 

The  preceding  hints  apply  to  travelling  over  rocks  and  rough  ground, 
such  as  may  be  found  in  all  high  mountain  districts.  The  peculiar  diffi- 
culties of  Alpine  travelling  depend  upon  the  extent  of  ice  and  snow  that 
cover  the  upper  region.  The  ice  is  chiefly  in  the  form  of  glaciers,  whose 
origin  and  constitution  are  described  in  Art.  XIV.  :  the  snow,  except  after 
a  recent  fall,  is  in  that  peculiar  condition  called  neve.  In  ascending  the 
Alps,  the  traveller  usually  begins  his  acquaintance  with  the  ice  region  by 
traversing  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  glacier  ice  ;  if  he  continue  to  ascend, 
he  will  reach  the  neve,  and  it  may  easily  happen  that,  at  a  still  greater 
height,  he  will  find  the  surface  covered  with  a  layer  of  fresh  snow.  The 
surface  of  a  glacier  is  sometimes  very  even  and  slightly  inclined,  some- 
times steep  and  irregular,  being  cut  up  by  deep  rents  called  crevasses, 
which  may  vary  from  a  few  inches  to  many  yards  in  width.  When  the 
sun  has  shone  for  even  a  short  time  upon  the  glacier,  the  upper  layer  of 
ice  partially  melts,  leaving  a  crisp  and  crumbling  surface,  on  which  the 
foot  holds  very  well ;  but  after  rain,  and  before  sunrise,  the  ice  generally 
shows  a  hard  and  very  slippery  surface  ;  the  foot,  though  shod  with  steel 
points,  makes  scarcely  any  impression,  and  it  is  necessary  to  cut  steps 
with  much  labour  on  slopes  that  a  few  hours  later  may  be  crossed  with 
ease.  The  lower  portion  of  a  glacier,  below  the  point  where  the  neve 
begins,  is  quite  as  easy  and  safe  to  traverse  as  if  it  were  formed  of  rock 
instead  of  ice.  Reasonable  caution  is  needed  in  jumping  over  crevasses, 
but  there  is  no  more  reason  why  a  traveller  should  fall  into  them  than 
that  he  should  walk  over  the  edge  of  a  chalk  cliff  on  the  South  Downs. 

Above  the  limit  of  the  neve  the  obstacles  that  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
mountaineer  may  properly  be  called  dangers  rather  than  difficulties,  and 
are  discussed  below  under  that  head. 

In  the  ascent  of  the  higher  peaks  of  the  Alps,  the  pleasure  and  excite- 
ment are  not  unalloyed  by  some  inconveniences.  The  first  of  these  is 
thirst,  painfully  felt  by  those  who  are  not  used  to  such  expeditions,  for 
but  few  find  by  experience  that  they  can  drink  cold  or  ice  water  with 
impunity.     In  this,  as  in  other  matters,  prevention  is  better  than  cure. 


ON   MOUNTAINEERING.  xxxix 

The  practice  of  carrying  a  small  quartz  pebble  in  the  mouth  has  been 
ridiculed,  but  it  rests  upon  a  rational  foundation.  By  causing  an  invo- 
luntary movement  of  the  jaws,  it  stimulates  the  salivary  glands,  and  keeps 
the  mouth  moist.  In  cases  where  this  means  of  prevention  is  insufficient, 
dried  prunes  or  raisins  are  to  be  recommended  ;  they  are  far  more 
serviceable  than  drinking.  The  fruit  should  be  kept  in  the  mouth  as  long 
as  possible,  and  chewed  very  slowly  during  the  ascent.  As  a  drink  along 
with  food,  cold  tea  diluted  is  the  best  remedy  for  thirst.  Snow  and  ice 
relieve  thirst  for  the  moment,  but  generally  remove  the  skin  from  the 
inside  of  the  mouth,  a  result  which  is  extremely  painful. 

Another  source  of  inconvenience  is  the  heat  of  the  sun  upon  the  head, 
which  may  partially  be  obviated  by  wearing  a  grey  hat,  as  that  attracts 
the  sun  far  less  than  black  or  white. 

More  serious  than  either  of  the  above  is  the  risk  of  frost-bites.  Numb- 
ness in  the  feet  or  hands  is  the  first  symptom.  Vigorous  clenching  of  the 
toes  or  fingers  usually  prevents  mischief.  When  this  has  actually  com- 
menced, violent  rubbing  with  snow,  and  beating  the  parts  affected,  are  the 
proper  means  for  restoring  circulation. 

The  painful  affection  called  mountain  sickness  is  due  to  the  combined 
effects  of  unusual  exertion  or  privation  and  the  diminished  density  of  the 
air  at  great  heights.  It  shows  itself  by  difficulty  of  breathing,  indispo- 
sition to  exertion,  headache,  drowsiness,  loss  of  appetite,  and,  if  continued, 
by  nausea.  It  is  felt  mostly  by  persons  unused  to  the  attenuated  air  of  the 
high  region  ;  while  those  accustomed  to  exertion  at  a  height  of  10,000  or 
1 1,000  ft.  rarely  suffer  in  ascending  the  higher  peaks  of  the  Alps.  As  it 
seldom  attacks  travellers  till  they  are  near  the  goal  of  their  exertions,  it 
may  usually  be  overcome  by  patience  and  perseverance.  The  patient 
should  halt  every  twenty  paces,  or  even  oftener,  and  resort  rather  to  food 
than  to  strong  liquor  as  a  restorative.  The  best  proof  that  unusual  exer- 
tion or  privation  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  symptoms  is  the  fact  that  they 
are  rarely  felt  in  descending,  even  from  the  highest  summits.  Although 
habit  diminishes  very  much  the  evil  effects,  there  is  little  doubt  that  all 
mountaineers  are  more  or  less  affected  by  the  mechanical  and  physio- 
logical disadvantages  that  attend  muscular  exertion  at  a  great  height.  If 
the  time  be  noted  that  is  required  to  ascend  two  snow  slopes  of  equal 
height  and  steepness,  but  at  very  different  elevations,  it  will  be  seen  that 
more  is  consumed  at  an  elevation  exceeding  13,000  ft.  than  is  required 
at  9,000  or  10,000. 

Long  exposure  to  the  glare  of  the  snow,  especially  in  sunshine,  is  very 
apt  to  cause  inflammation  either  of  the  eyes  themselves  or  of  the  sur- 
rounding membranes.  The  precaution  of  wearing  smoked  spectacles 
should  be  adopted  in  time,  without  waiting  till  disagreeable  sensations 
are  felt.  These  show  that  the  inflammatory  action  has  begun.  The 
consequences  of  neglecting  these  precautions  are  sometimes  extremely 
painful.  The  best  remedy  is  to  apply  a  cloth  or  handkerchief,  steeped  in 
water,  closely  pressed  upon  the  inflamed  eyelids,  and  retained  as  long  as 
possible.     Tepid  water  should  be  preferred. 

This  list  of  minor  miseries  of  mountaineering  may  be  closed  with  one 
which  is  often  felt  for  some  days  after  an  ascent,  though  but  little  at  the 
moment.     This  is  the  blistering  and  peeling  off  of  the  skin,  caused  by  the 


xl  .        INTRODUCTION. 

direct  rays  of  the  sun,  or  the  reflection  from  the  snow,  aided  by  the  sharp 
wind  which  often  blows  at  great  heights.  After  a  long  day's  exposure 
at  a  great  height  it  often  happens  that  every  portion  of  the  outer  skin 
exposed  to  the  air  peels  off,  leaving  the  surface  raw  and  uncomfortable  for 
several  days.  Cold  cream  or  vaseline,  and  especially  '  Crcme  Simon,' 
applied  beforehand  is  a  preventive.  The  lips  are  the  part  that  most 
frequently  suffers  from  this  cause,  being  sometimes  split  in  a  painful 
manner,  if  not  protected  by  lip  salve.  Collodion,  although  a  disagreeable 
application,  is  sometimes  useful  by  forming  a  pellicle  over  the  surface 
which  excludes  the  air. 

Blisters  in  the  soles  of  the  feet  should  not  be  cut,  but  pierced  with  a 
needle  near  the  edge,  and  the  contents  pressed  out.  Rubbing  the  inside 
of  the  sock  with  yellow  soap  is  a  preventive,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  rub 
the  feet  with  tallow  and  brandy.  Some  persons  are  apt  to  lose  the  skin 
of  the  toes  during  a  long  and  steep  descent.  It  is  easily  replaced  by  good 
adhesive  plaster. 

Precautions  for  Health.- — Few  of  these  are  required ;  for  the  com- 
bination of  active  exercise,  pure  air,  and  freedom  from  care  is  better  for 
the  health  than  all  the  prescriptions  yet  framed  by  doctors.  A  few  hints, 
however,  may  not  be  useless. 

Avoid  overworking  yourself  at  first. 

When  fatigued  after  an  unusually  hard  day's  work,  avoid  wine,  and 
drink  very  weak  tea  or  mineral  waters  in  the  evening.  You  will  sleep 
soundly  and  awake  refreshed. 

Should  you  still  feel  the  effects  of  over-fatigue,  make  the  following  day 
one  of  rest. 

Make  it  an  invariable  rule  (if  possible)  to  wash  extensively  with  cold 
or  tepid  water,  and  to  change  your  inner  clothing  immediately  on  your 
arrival  after  a  day's  walk. 

Dietary. — In  the  frequented  parts  of  the  Alps  it  is  now  quite  safe  to 
rely  on  obtaining  food  at  the  places  where  a  traveller  puts  up  for  the 
night.  In  other  districts,  where  provisions  are  poor  and  scanty,  it  is 
necessary  to  carry  supplies,  more  or  less  extensive  according  to  the  wants 
of  each  traveller.  The  writer  (J.  B.)  has  found  i  lb.  of  rice  per  day, 
thoroughly  boiled  in  the  excellent  milk  which  is  always  to  be  had  at  the 
upper  chalets,  quite  sufficient  to  give  two  good  meals  to  two  travellers. 
Chocolate  may  be  used  for  one  meal,  but  in  that  case  bread  should  also 
be  taken.  Hard-boiled  eggs  contain  much  nourishment  in  small  space, 
but  are  disliked  by  some.  They  are  usually  boiled  too  hard  ;  five  minutes 
is  quite  enough,  but  even  so  they  are  not  very  attractive  food.  The 
bread  commonly  found  in  chalets  is  a  hard  black  bread,  baked  once  or 
twice  a  year,  and  not  agreeable  to  unaccustomed  palates.  On  the  Italian 
side  of  the  Alps  (and  in  many  parts  of  Switzerland)  a  substitute  for  bread 
is  often  found  in  the  shape  of  polenta,  made  of  maize  flour.  When 
the  flour  is  good  and  thoroughly  cooked,  this,  eaten  with  milk  or  fresh 
butter,  is  wholesome  and  pala  table  food.  The  brousse  made  in  the  cheese 
chalets  in  many  parts  of  the  Alps  is  highly  recommended  by  some,  but 
does  not  suit  all  stomachs. 

The  dangers  of  Alpine  travelling:  have  been  often  exaggerated,  but 
they  are  real,  and  no  rational  man  will  disregard  them.     The  best  proof 


ON   MOUNTAINEERING.  xli 

that  these  dangers  are  not  greater  than  those  attending  many  other 
active  exercises,  such  as  fox-hunting  and  yachting,  is  the  fact  that,  in 
spite  of  inexperience  and  the  neglect  of  the  best  known  precautions,  the 
fatal  accidents  in  the  Alps  have  been  relatively  so  few.  The  loss  of  many 
lives  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  a  much  larger  number  of  very  narrow 
escapes,  some  of  them  happening  to  first-rate  guides  and  mountaineers, 
ought,  however,  to  operate  as  a  salutary  warning.  The  wives  and  mothers 
of  Alpine  travellers,  who  are  disquieted  by  the  reports  of  accidents, 
should  know  that  very  few  have  as  yet  occurred  that  could  not  have  been 
prevented  by  ordinary  caution,  and  adherence  to  well  known  rules  ;  and, 
instead  of  endeavouring  to  withhold  their  husbands  and  sons  from  a 
healthful  and  invigorating  pursuit,  should  simply  urge  them  to  observe 
.  the  precautions  which  afford  security  against  all  its  ordinary  dangers. 

The  following  remarks  are  condensed,  with  slight  alterations,  from  a 
paper  by  Mr.  Ball,  in  the  First  Series  of '  Peaks,  Passes,  and  Glaciers.' 

The  dangers  of  Alpine  expeditions  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — 
the  real  and  the  imaginary.  Where  a  ridge  or  slope  of  rock  or  ice  is 
such  that  it  could  be  traversed  without  difficulty  if  it  lay  but  a  few  feet 
above  the  level  of  a  garden,  the  substitution  on  either  side  of  a  precipice 
some  thousands  of  feet  in  depth,  or  of  a  glacier  crevasse,  makes  no  real 
difference  in  the  work  to  be  done,  though  it  may  have  a  formidable  effect 
on  the  traveller's  imagination.  Those  who  cannot  remove  this  source  of 
danger  by  accustoming  themselves  to  look  unmoved  down  vertical 
precipices,  and,  in  cases  of  real  difficulty,  to  fix  their  attention  exclusively 
on  the  ledge  or  jutting  crag  to  which  they  must  cling  with  foot  or  hand, 
should  avoid  expeditions  on  which  a  moment's  nervousness  may  endanger 
their  own  lives  or  those  of  others. 

The  real  dangers  of  the  High  Alps  may,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
be  reduced  to  three — first,  the  yielding  of  the  snow  bridges  that  cover 
glacier  crevasses  ;  second,  the  risk  of  slipping  upon  steep  slopes  of  hard 
ice  or  of  snow  on  ice  ;  third,  the  fall  of  ice  or  rocks  from  above. 

(i)  From  the  first  and  most  frequent  source  of  danger  absolute 
security  is  obtained  by  a  precaution  generally  known  but  often  neglected. 
In  the  higher  region  of  the  glaciers,  crevasses,  even  of  considerable 
width,  are  often  completely  bridged  over  by  a  covering  of  snow  or  neVe, 
so  that  no  indication  of  their  existence  is  seen  on  the  surface  of  the 
glacier.  The  bridges,  especially  when  formed  of  fresh  snow,  often  yield 
under  the  weight  of  a  man's  footsteps  ;  in  such  a  case  an  active  man 
whose  attention  is  on  the  alert  may  sometimes  extricate  himself  at  once, 
but  it  more  commonly  happens  that  he  falls  into  the  chasm  beneath,  in 
which  case  his  chance  of  life  is  very  uncertain.  But  if  several  travellers 
are  tied  together  with  a  stout  rope,  at  intervals  of  about  15  feet,  and  keep 
their  distance,  as  it  is  most  unlikely  that  more  than  one  should  fall  at  the 
same  time  into  the  same  crevasse,  no  appreciable  danger  from  this  cause 
need  be  incurred.  Even  two  men  tied  together  may  with  proper  attention 
diminish  this  risk,  but  greater  security  is  obtained  when  they  are  three 
or  more  in  number.  It  is  mainly  because  he  cannot  be  protected  from 
this  danger  that  a  man  who  goes  alone  over  the  higher  regions  of  the 
great  glaciers  incurs  a  risk  that  must  be  called  unjustifiable. 

As  it  is   hard   to   persuade  a  landsman  that   a  well-found  yacht  has 


xlii  INTRODUCTION. 

more  danger  to  fear  in  a  fog,  with  a  smooth  sea  around,  than  when  a  stifr 
breeze  is  blowing,  so  inexperienced  mountaineers  are  slow  to  admit  that 
there  is  more  real  chance  of  accident  in  traversing  some  wide  expanse  of 
neve,  unbroken  by  a  single  ruffle,  than  in  crossing  a  broken  glacier  with 
wide  crevasses  opening  on  every  side.  A  very  moderate  amount  of 
practice  enables  a  man  to  make  sure  of  his  footing  and  to  avoid  seen 
dangers,  but  unseen  perils  call  forth  no  caution,  and  though  the  rope 
offers  complete  security,  many  travellers,  and  even  some  guides,  are 
disposed  to  neglect  it.  At  the  risk  of  being  thought  over-cautious,  the 
writer  (J.  B.)  will  not  cease  to  urge  upon  his  fellow-travellers  in  the  Alps 
the  enactment,  as  a  fixed  rule  in  mountaineering,  that  on  reaching  the 
neve  (if  not  before)  the  members  of  a  party  should  all  be  roped  together. 
He  is  perfectly  aware  that  there  are  many  places  where  the  risk  is  very 
slight :  a  practised  mountaineer  might  cross  the  St.  Theodule  Pass  500 
times  without  accident,  but  the  501st  time  he  might  be  lost  in  a  crevasse, 
as  has  happened  twice  on  or  near  the  pass  since  the  writer  first  knew  it. 
With  a  sufficient  inducement,  and  if  it  were  impossible  to  find  a  com- 
panion, he  would  not  hesitate  to  cross  that  or  some  other  high  passes 
alone  ;  but  if  he  were  in  company,  he  would  insist  on  the  use  of  the  rope. 

It  would  seem  scarcely  necessary  to  insist  that  the  rope  should  be 
sound  and  strong,  if  it  did  not  sometimes  happen  that  untrustworthy  articles 
are  taken  by  guides  ;  and  it  is  not  less  important  to  note  that  it  should 
be  fastened  round  the  body  of  each  member  of  the  party,  guides  included, 
leaving  both  hands  free  to  use  the  ice  axe  or  alpenstock  in  case  of  a  slip. 
A  neglect  of  the  first  precaution  led  to  a  fatal  accident  in  1859,  and  to 
another  in  1863,  and  a  breach  of  the  second  to  the  loss  of  three  English 
travellers,  and  one  of  their  guides,  in  1 860,  in  the  descent  from  the  Col 
du  Geant  to  Courmayeur. 

When  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  cross  a  snow  bridge  of  doubtful 
solidity,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  let  each  person  in  succession  crawl  across 
on  hands  and  knees,  with  the  alpenstock  in  one  hand  laid  flat  upon  the 
snow,  so  as  to  distribute  the  weight  over  as  large  a  surface  as  possible. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  whole  party  should 
be  well  roped  together. 

(2)  The  ascent  and  descent  of  steep  ice-slopes,  or  of  snow  on  ice,  are 
amongst  the  most  difficult  operations  that  commonly  fall  in  the  way  of  the 
mountaineer,  but  when  properly  conducted  there  should  be  little  or  no 
danger  to  those  concerned.  It  should  be  explained  that  the  term  ice 
slope  is  commonly  applied  to  slopes  of  neve  on  which,  after  a  certain 
amount  of  exposure,  a  crust  is  formed,  too  hard  to  yield  to  the  foot,  yet 
very  different  from  compact  glacier  ice.  This  icy  crust  yields  easily  to 
the  axe,  and  a  couple  of  well  directed  blows  suffice  to  make  a  step  on 
which  the  foot  may  take  secure  hold.  When  we  read  of  ascents  in 
which  several  hundred  steps  have  been  cut,  it  must  usually  (though  not 
always)  be  understood  that  these  have  been  made  on  slopes  of  frozen 
neve.  Though  the  operation  is  rather  tedious,  and  fatiguing  to  those 
engaged  in  cutting  the  steps,  such  ascents  seldom  involve  any  risk, 
for  the  steps  are  usually  very  easily  enlarged  so  as  to  give  good  standing- 
ground.  On  slopes  exposed  to  the  sun,  where  a  thin  layer  of  snow  has 
lain   over   rocks,    the   whole  mass    is   sometimes    so   saturated   by  the 


ON    MOUNTAINEERING.  xliii 

melting  of  the  surface  that  when  refrozen  at  night  it  is  converted  into  a 
continuous  mass  of  nearly  compact  solid  ice.  Such  a  slope,  especially 
if  it  be  steep,  is  far  more  troublesome  than  those  above  described  ;  to 
cut  steps  is  a  much  more  laborious  operation,  and  these  are  generally 
shallower,  and  give  but  precarious  footing.  In  such  situations  some 
experience  and  perfect  steadiness  are  indispensable,  and  it  is  essential 
that  the  rope  should  be  kept  tightly  stretched. 

In  spite  of  every  precaution,  a  traveller  may  slip  on  an  ice  slope  where, 
if  unchecked,  a  fall  would  lead  to  certain  destruction.  Against  this 
danger  the  rope  is  usually  an  effectual  preservative.  Cases  are  said  to 
occur  where  the  footing  is  so  precarious  that  a  party  cannot  be  tied 
together,  as,  if  one  were  to  slip,  he  would  inevitably  drag  all  his  com- 
panions along  with  him  to  destruction.  It  is  for  those  concerned  to 
consider  whether  in  such  instances  the  object  in  view  is  such  as  to  justify 
the  inevitable  peril  of  the  ascent.  The  writer  (J.  B.)  believes,  however, 
that  such  cases  are  extremely  rare,  and  that  very  few  slopes  have  yet 
been  surmounted  where  two  men,  with  well-stretched  rope,  could  not 
hold  up  a  third  who  should  slip,  especially  if  the  latter  be  not  wanting  in 
steadiness  and  presence  of  mind. 

There  is  one  description  of  slope  which  usually  involves  serious  risk. 
That  is  when  a  layer  of  fresh  snow  lies  upon  a  surface  of  hard  ice,  or 
even  well-compacted  neve.  For  some  days  there  is  little  adhesion 
between  the  upper  and  the  under  layer,  and  if  the  slope  be  steep  the 
disturbance  caused  by  the  pressure  of  a  foot  may  easily  produce  an 
avalanche  capable  of  carrying  away  and  burying  an  entire  party. 
Practical  experience  is  needed  to  determine  whether  the  ascent  can  be 
safely  attempted.  Several  fatal  accidents  that  have  occurred  in  the 
numerous  ascents  of  Mont  Blanc  should  serve  as  warnings  against 
attempting  an  ascent  when  the  snow  is  in  this  condition. 

(3)  The  dangers  arising  from  masses  of  ice  or  rock  falling  across  the 
track  are  at  the  moment  beyond  the  skill  of  the  traveller,  but  they  may, 
to  a  great  extent,  be  avoided  by  a  judicious  choice  of  route.  Ex- 
perienced mountaineers  learn  to  recognise  the  positions  where  ice 
detached  from  a  higher  level  descends  over  a  precipice  or  steep  slope  of 
rock.  They  either  avoid  such  spots  altogether,  or  are  careful  to  pass 
them  either  early  in  the  morning,  before  the  sun  has  loosened  the  im- 
pending masses,  or  late  in  the  day,  after  his  rays  have  been  withdrawn. 

During  bad  weather  the  ordinary  risks  of  Alpine  travelling  are  much 
increased,  and  serious  dangers  from  other  causes  may  assail  the  traveller. 
Masses  of  rock  are  detached  from  their  previously  firm  resting-places, 
and  come  thundering  down  across  the  track.  Falling  snow  obscures  the 
view  and  effaces  the  footprints,  so  that  it  becomes  equally  difficult  to 
advance  or  to  retreat.  Most  formidable  of  all,  the  tourmentc,  or  snow 
whirlwind — when  the  wind  begins  to  blow  in  violent  gusts — bewilders 
the  traveller,  half  blinded  by  the  fine  dust-like  snow  of  the  higher  regions, 
and  benumbs  his  limbs  with  its  biting  breath  if  he  be  unable  to  keep  op 
rapid  exercise.  A  reasonable  man  will  not  attempt  expeditions  in  the 
higher  regions  of  the  Alps  during  bad  weather,  and  will  resort  to  an 
immediate  retreat  when  unexpectedly  attacked  by  it.  Attention  to  the 
bearings  of  the  compass  and  to  landmarks   will  in  most  cases  enable 


xliv  INTRODUCTION. 

travellers  to  retrace  their  steps.  In  attempting  to  traverse  an  unknown 
glacier,  it  is  prudent  to  gain  a  height  overlooking  the  projected  route, 
and  examine  the  surface  carefully  through  a  glass. 

Very  serious  danger  is  incurred  when  inexperienced  men  take  part  in 
difficult  expeditions. 

Of  recent  years  mountaineering  without  guides  has  come  into  fashion, 
and  in  some  cases  has  been  carried  to  an  excess.  Few  (if  any)  amateurs, 
having  but  five  or  six  weeks  at  their  disposal  annually,  can  hope  to 
become  as  good  all  round  as  even  a  second-class  professional  glacier 
guide.  But  to  many  amateurs  there  is  a  keen  pleasure  in  overcoming 
obstacles  by  their  own  unaided  efforts,  and  nothing  can  be  more  justified 
in  the  case  of  those  qualified  by  .experience  and  physical  capacities  for 
such  feats.  Solitary  mountaineering  in  the  High  Alps  is  unreservedly 
condemned  by  all  competent  judges. 


Art.  VIZI. — Guides  and  Porters. 

The  inducements  to  the  natives  to  adopt  the  profession  of  guide  have 
constantly  increased  during  the  last  half-century,  in  the  same  proportion 
as  the  number  of  strangers  annually  resorting  to  the  Alps.  The  large 
majority  of  tourists  do  no  more  than  follow  a  frequented  path,  where 
one  native  of  the  district  is  as  competent  as  another.  The  increased 
desire  to  explore  the  less  accessible  parts  of  the  Alps,  and  to  undertake 
difficult  and  dangerous  expeditions,  has  led  to  a  demand  for  the  services 
of  a  superior  class  of  men,  who  possess  in  a  high  degree  the  special 
qualities  of  the  mountaineer.  Although  there  is  no  recognised  distinction 
between  the  two  classes,  and  the  best  guide,  when  not  otherwise  engaged, 
is  ready  to  carry  a  lady's  shawl  over  the  easiest  Alpine  pass,  there  is  in 
fact  as  wide  a  difference  between  them  as  between  the  most  eminent  and 
the  inferior  men  in  any  other  profession.  The  practice  of  taking  the 
same  guide  throughout  an  entire  tour,  which  has  become  very  common 
among  Alpine  travellers,  has  led  to  another  distinction,  better  defined 
than  the  last,  between  general  and  local  guides.  While  the  latter  have 
no  pretension  to  go  beyond  the  bounds  of  their  own  immediate  district, 
the  others  are  men  who  have  acquired  a  tolerably  wide  acquaintance 
with  many  or  even  most  parts  of  the  Alps,  who  speak  French  and  German, 
and  sometimes  English,  and  have  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  dialects 
used  in  different  parts  of  the  chain  to  serve  as  interpreters,  and  as  useful 
travelling  servants.  The  men  who  unite  the  qualities  of  the  mountaineer 
with  a  wide  range  of  local  knowledge  are  naturally  the  most  valuable  to 
the  Alpine  traveller,  but  their  number  is  very  limited.  The  best  men  are 
usually  engaged  weeks,  or  months,  beforehand,  mainly  by  members  of 
the  Alpine  Club.  An  ordinary  tourist  has  no  occasion  to  seek  for  men 
of  this  class,  but  he  may  find  it  an  excellent  plan  to  secure  the  services 
of  a  steady  respectable  man  who  will  accompany  him  throughout  his 
tour. 

The  early  travellers  in  the  Alps  found  that  the  natives  most  likely  to 
possess  a  knowledge  of  the  mountains  of  their  district,  and  therefore 
most  familiar  with  what  was  then  largely  a   terra  incognita,  were  the 


GUIDES  AND   PORTERS.  \1\ 

herdsmen  and  goatherds,  the  smugglers  (if  the  district  was  near  the 
frontier),  and  particularly  (if  it  was  intended  to  make  difficult  ascents  or 
explorations)  the  local  chamois  hunters,  though  it  did  not  prove  that  any 
but  a  few  of  the  men  belonging  to  one  or  other  of  these  classes  were 
really  fitted  to  permanently  become  guides  to  strangers.  Little  by  little 
the  more  enterprising  and  bolder  men  in  each  district  found  that  it  was 
profitable  to  devote  themselves  to  guiding  as  a  profession,  especially  as 
the  number  of  visitors  to  their  valleys  increased  ;  for  there  was  thus  a 
chance  of  more  or  less  constant  employment  during  the  summer,  and  so 
of  earning  ready  money,  the  stock  of  which  in  most  Alpine  valleys  is 
otherwise  far  from  large.  Soon  it  was  found  desirable  to  place  the 
members  of  this  new  profession  under  rules  and  regulations.  At 
Chamonix  the  first  set  of  regulations  dates  back  as  far  as  1821,  but 
ceased  to  have  force  in  1848,  the  later  codes  dating  from  1851  and 
especially  1856.  The  Bernese  Oberland  guides  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  organised  till  1856  (these  regulations  were  modified  in  1874),  while 
the  Pontresina  men  did  not  form  a  society  till  1861.  Other  districts 
followed  suit  at  a  still  more  recent  period,  and  it  may  now  be  said  that, 
with  the  exception  of  some  very  little  frequented  spots,  the  guides  in 
each  district  form  a  sort  of  corporation,  with  strict  rules  and  regulations. 

The  system  is  best  organised  in  Switzerland,  where  it  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Cantonal  {not  communal)  authorities,  assisted  by  the  Swiss 
Alpine  Club.  In  other  districts  matters  are  managed  more  or  less  ex- 
clusively by  the  local  branch  of  the  national  Alpine  Society,  which 
issues  licenses,  &c,  and  exercises  a  general  supervision  over  its  men. 
The  following  remarks  refer  mainly  to  the  Swiss  system  (particularly 
that  of  the  Bernese  Oberland),  which  is  followed  in  its  general  outlines  by 
those  of  other  Alpine  lands. 

In  Switzerland  any  strong  man,  of  good  reputation  and  18  years  of  age, 
may  apply  for  a  license  as  '  porter  : '  his  pay  (7-9  francs — including 
food — per  day  of  8  hrs.)  and  other  rights  and  obligations  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  a  '  guide,5  save  that  he  is  bound  to  carry  50  pounds  weight  (the 
guides  only  20),  while  a  '  porter'  has  no  responsibility  for  the  safety  of  the 
party,  being  under  the  orders  of  the,guide,  and  practically  occupying  the 
position  of  an  apprentice.  He  cannot  become  a  ■  guide '  till  he  has  attained 
the  age  of  20  years,  and  has  successfully  passed  an  examination  in  the 
topography,  &c,  of  his  valley  and  Switzerland  in  general,  and  other 
practical  subjects,  before  a  Commission  appointed  for  that  purpose  in 
each  district.  Then  his  responsibilities  increase,  and  he  becomes  some- 
thing more  than  a  beast  of  burden. 

Each  porter  or  guide  on  being  licensed  receives  (like  every  other 
workman  on  the  Continent)  a  book,  containing  the  printed  regulations 
by  which  he  is  bound,  &c,  together  with  a  number  of  blank  leaves 
whereon  his  employers  enter  their  remarks  and  recommendations.  Each 
man,  of  whichever  class,  is  bound  to  offer  his  book  to  his  employer  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  his  engagement,  while  it  has  to  be  inspected 
by  the  licensing  authority  annually,  when  the  license  is  renewed.  In 
many  cases  the  records  in  these  books,  if  carefully  preserved,  come  in  the 
course  of  time  to  possess  great  interest,  and  even  considerable  historical 
value. 


xlvi  INTRODUCTION. 

Where  the  guides  and  porters  are  numerous  the  Cantonal  authorities 
appoint  a  '  Chief  Guide,'  who  is  charged  with  the  general  supervision  of 
the  men,  and  with  settling  the  minor  disputes  that  may  arise  between 
them  and  their  employers,  though  a  serious  complaint  against  a  man 
should  be  addressed  to  the  Cantonal  authorities,  in  the  person  of  the 
nearest  '  Prefect.5  Grave  misconduct  may  be  punished  by  fine  or  even 
by  withdrawal  of  the  license,  but  such  cases  are  luckily  rare,  and  are 
generally  made  known  in  the  various  Alpine  periodicals. 

Most  of  the  Oberland  guides,  and  some  of  those  in  other  districts, 
effect,  with  the  aid  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club,  insurances  on  their  lives 
(mainly  for  the  summer)  against  injuries  received  by  them  in  the  exercise 
of  their  profession.  (See  an  article  by  Pfarrer  Strasser  in  vol.  xxxi.  of 
the  S.A.C.  'Jahrbuch'). 

Though  all  guides  are  on  the  same  legal  footing,  in  practice  there  is 
a  great  distinction  between  those  who  may  be  called  ordinary  guides 
and  those  who  are  strictly  glacier  guides. 

The  ordinary  guides  are  respectable  men,  ready  and  willing  to  show 
the  way,  and  to  perform  small  services  for  their  employers  ;  but,  except 
here  and  there,  they  confine  themselves  to  the  minor  excursions,  rarely 
venturing  beyond,  say,  the  Mer  de  Glace  at  Chamonix,  or  the  Grindelwald 
Eismeer.  They  are  generally  engaged  for  a  single  excursion,  though  the 
traveller  may  sometimes  decide  to  take  a  pleasant-spoken  man  with  him 
for  a  few  days.  But,  save  in  special  cases,  they  are  not  acquainted  with 
anything  beyond  their  own  immediate  district. 

The  glacier  guides,  on  the  other  hand,  are  those  who  devote  their 
energies,  save  for  a  day  or  two  now  and  then,  to  making  high  and  difficult 
mountain  expeditions  in  any  part  of  the  Alps.  This  higher  class  of  guide 
possesses  the  strength  and  activity,  combined  with  the  courage,  coolness, 
and  skill,  that  make  the  accomplished  mountaineer,  and  is  formed  only  by 
the  union  of  training  and  experience  with  the  requisite  natural  faculties. 
To  a  certain  extent  the  raw  material  may  be  said  to  exist  wherever 
chamois-hunting  is  a  favourite  pursuit  of  the  young  and  active  men.  But 
this  of  itself  does  not  suffice.  The  most  skilful  Pyrenean  chasseur, 
placed  on  the  summit  of  the  Straljlegg  Pass,  would  probably  be  over- 
powered with  terror,  and  if  unaided  would  be  little  likely  to  reach 
Grindelwald  or  the  Grimsel ;  while  many  good  Oberland  guides  might 
hesitate  before  trusting  themselves  on  the  face  of  a  dizzy  limestone 
precipice  that  is  traversed  with  ease  by  the  Aragonese  cragsman  with 
his  alpargatas  (shoes  with  hempen  soles).  Active  men  and  bold 
climbers  may  now  be  found  in  most  parts  of  the  Alps,  but  it  is  mainly  in 
the  Bernese  Oberland  and  in  the  Vallais  (for  Chamonix  has  fallen 
in  this  respect  from  its  high  estate)  that  the  degree  of  experience  and 
skill  requisite  for  contending  with  the  difficulties  of  the  snow  and  ice 
region  of  the  Alps  is  to  be  acquired.  With  a  few  brilliant  exceptions, 
however,  the  Vallais  guides  are  inferior  to  their  rivals  of  Grindelwald, 
but  these  two  sets  may  be  classed  together  in  point  of  icecraft  and  rock- 
craft  as  against  their  comrades  in  other  Alpine  districts,  E.  and  W., 
who  are  often  excellent  cragsmen,  but  rarely  know  much  (if  anything) 
about  ice  and  snow. 

A  glacier  guide  is  expected  to  carry  a  sack  (though  not  a  very  heavy 


GUIDES  AND   PORTERS.  xlvii 

one),  and  to  find  himself  in  the  articles  requisite  for  his  profession  (such 
as  rope  and  ice  axe).  In  strictness  he  is  bound  to  feed  himself  out  of  his 
pay,  but  save  in  Switzerland  (where  the  prices  for  guides  are  very  low) 
it  is  usual  for  the  employer  to  pay  part  or  the  whole  of  his  guide's 
ordinary  hotel  expenses.  Of  course,  when  food  has  to  be  carried  up  to 
some  Club  hut  far  from  an  hotel,  the  traveller  is  bound  to  take  sufficient 
provisions,  wood,  &c,  for  his  guides  as  well  as  for  himself. 

In  pretty  well  every  district  of  the  Alps  the  sum  to  be  paid  for  any 
glacier  ascent  or  pass  is  now  fixed  by  an  official  printed  tariff,  which  can 
be  seen  in  the  inns  of  the  district.  The  Swiss  Alpine  Club  has  just 
rendered  a  very  great  service  to  mountaineers  by  collecting  into  two 
small  volumes,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  codifying,  the  fees  due  for  all 
the  chief  high  expeditions  in  Switzerland  (save  in  the  Bernese  Alps). 
Of  course  a  traveller  who  is  content  with  the  services  rendered  by  his 
guide  after  a  few  days,  or  it  may  be  weeks,  of  companionship  will  add  to 
the  sum  legally  due  (including,  if  necessary,  the  6  francs  per  day  of  8 
hrs.  payable  for  the  expense  of  the  return  to  a  man  discharged  at  a  dis- 
tance from  his  home)  a  gratuity  proportional  to  the  work  done. 

While  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  every  glacier  guide  still  on  the 
active  list  may  be  trusted  to  safely  lead  his  employer  on  any  of  the 
ordinary  glacier  expeditions,  it  is  only  a  select  minority  which  is  capable 
of  achieving  the  more  difficult  peaks  and  passes.  This  class  of  men  is,  of 
course,  extremely  limited  in  point  of  numbers  (it  has,  indeed,  been  reckoned 
that  at  present  there  are  perhaps  not  more  than  25  guides  of  the  first 
class  in  the  whole  range  of  the  Alps),  while  such  men  are  engaged  long 
in  advance,  often  for  year  after  year  by  the  same  mountaineer,  so  that 
ordinary  travellers  have  no  chance  of  picking  one  up,  unless  by  accident 
between  two  engagements.  In  such  cases  of  extended  tours  it  is  usual 
that  the  pay  should  be  settled  not  by  the  official  tariff,  but  by  some  private 
arrangement  between  the  parties  concerned.  Sometimes  it  is  agreed 
that  the  guide  shall  receive  so  much  per  day  (wet  or  fine),  save  when  a 
high  expedition  is  made,  when  so  much  will  be  deducted  from  the  tariff 
for  that  climb,  since  it  is  evident  that  being  sure  of  even  some  pay  in 
bad  weather,  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  guide  to  smooth  matters  for  his 
employer.  Another  plan  is  to  promise  a  guide  a  lump  sum  down  for 
an  engagement  of  so  many  weeks,  the  employer  here  taking  the  chance 
of  fine  weather,  health,  &c,  while  the  guide  is  bound  to  make  as  many 
ascents  in  the  given  time  as  his  employer's  legs  and  the  weather  may 
enable  the  party  to  achieve.  Yet  a  third  plan  (in  some  ways  the  simplest 
and  fairest  of  all)  is  that  the  guide  shall  receive  so  much  per  day  (wet 
or  fine),  but  that  if  a  high  pass  is  made  he  shall  in  lieu  of  his  day's  pay 
receive  a  fixed  sum,  and  if  a  high  peak  be  climbed  a  still  higher  fixed 
sum,  always  in  lieu  of  the  ordinary  day's  pay. 

It  often  happens  that  a  guide  may  travel  with  the  same  employer  for  a 
series  of  years,  and  in  many  different  districts  of  the  Alps.  In  that  case 
a  strong  bond  is  formed  between  the  two  who  have  so  often  been  in 
danger  and  undergone  exciting  adventures  together.  This  bond  not 
unfrequently  gets  stronger  and  stronger  as  years  roll  by,  and  it  sometimes 
becomes  a  lasting  friendship  between  two  men  who,  by  being  con- 
stantly thrown  together  in  moments  of  danger  and  anxiety,  have  their 


xlviii  INTRODUCTION. 

good  qualities  brought  out.  No  one  who  does  not  know  it  by  personal 
experience  can  form  any  idea  of  the  devotion  and  loyalty  displayed  by  the 
picked  men  of  this  class  towards  travellers  who  treat  them  with  proper 
consideration  and  respect,  so  that  a  real  affection  springs  up  between 
men  who  might  be  thought  at  first  sight  to  have  but  little  in  common. 
The  writer  of  these  lines  (W.  A.  B.  C.)  can  bear  witness  on  this  point, 
as  he  has  enjoyed  the  great  privilege  of  having  had  different  members  of 
the  same  family  as  his  guides  for  the  last  thirty  years.  In  his  opinion 
the  nature  of  this  tie  has  never  been  better  set  forth  than  in  the  following 
sentences  penned  by  a  brilliant  writer  (Sir  F.  Pollock,  Bart.)  in  memory 
of  an  Oberlander  who  had  been  his  faithful  guide  and  companion  for 
several  seasons  : — 

'  There  are  travellers  to  the  Alps,  I  believe,  who,  having  made  one  or 
more  excursions  for  which  a  guide  is  necessary,  still  regard  their  guide  as  a 
sort  of  hired  servant  a  little  above  the  lowest  degree.  To  such  persons 
these  words  are  not  addressed,  for  to  them  I  should  be  speaking  an 
unknown  language.  But  those  will  understand  me  who  have  known  what 
it  is  to  share  day  after  day  the  smiles  or  anger  of  the  high  air,  and  break 
bread  among  the  perennial  snows,  with  a  chosen  faithful  companion — 
Oberlander,  or  Walliser,  or  Chamoniard  ;  nor  these  only,  but  all  who  have 
learned  the  worth  of  true  and  simple  manhood  in  times  and  places  where 
the  refinements  of  our  artificial  life  are  of  no  account.  Therefore  it  will 
seem  nothing  strange  to  Englishmen  of  the  right  sort  who  use  their  eyes 
and  their  limbs,  whether  they  be  Alpine  climbers  or  not,  that  one  should 
not  esteem  lightly  the  loss  of  a  valiant  and  courteous  guide  who  will  never 
wield  ice-axe  more.  These,  I  know,  are  the  terms  of  old  romance, 
associated  with  pageants  and  great  solemnities,  and  companies  of  stately 
men  and  fair  women.  It  may  seem  incongruous  to  apply  them  to  people 
who  wear  hob-nailed  boots  and  clothes  of  the  roughest  homespun,  and 
talk  in  an  uncouth  highland  dialect  of  German.  But  if  valour  and  courtesy 
are  not  the  fitting  words  for  the  character  of  the  best  Swiss  guides,  I 
know  not  what  other  to  find.  They  are  ever  ready  to  perform  what 
they  have  undertaken,  or  at  least  carry  the  attempt  to  the  uttermost  of 
man's  power,  not  as  the  bare  fulfilment  of  a  bargain,  but  joyfully  and  as 
an  honourable  achievement ;  they  are  ever  watchful  not  merely  for  the 
safety  of  the  travellers  they  have  taken  in  their  charge,  but  for  their  ease 
and  comfort  in  everything ;  and  all  this  they  do  as  if  it  were  pure  pleasure 
to  them  and  the  most  natural  thing  in  the  world.5  * 


Art.  XX. — Inns  and  Club  Huts. 

So  much  does  the  comfort  of  travellers  depend  upon  the  goodness  or 
badness  of  the  accommodation  found  at  inns,  that  it  is  not  surprising  if 
they  exact  a  degree  of  accuracy  on  this  point  from  a  guide-book  that,  from 
the  nature  of  the  case,  it  is  impossible  fully  to  attain.  Assuming  that  the 
information  at  the  Editor's  disposal  were  always  very  recent,  there  is  a  great 
degree  of  uncertainty  about  the  impression  left  upon  a  passing  traveller  by 
an  inn  where  he  remains  for  one  or  two  nights.     One  traveller  happens 

*  Alpine  Journal,  vol.  x.  p.  78. 


INNS  AND  CLUB   HUTS.  xlix 

to  arrive  when  the  house  is  crowded,  the  larder  ill-provided,  and  servants 
and  the  master  tired.  He  is  ill-lodged,  ill-fed,  and  ill-attended,  and  as  a 
natural  consequence  his  report  is  highly  unfavourable.  A  few  days  later 
another  traveller  is  lodged  in  the  best  rooms,  finds  abundant  supplies,  and 
is  treated  with  attention.  The  second  report  is,  as  it  ought  to  be,  entirely 
different  from  the  first.  There  are  but  a  few  hotels  of  the  best  class  so  well 
arranged,  and  under  such  skilful  and  active  management,  as  not  to  be 
liable  to  such  vicissitudes.  In  truth,  however,  the  information  obtainable 
dates  back  at  least  several  months,  perhaps  even  two  or  three  years,  and 
in  that  time  very  many  changes  can  occur.  The  management  of  an  inn, 
especially  a  large  one,  requires  constant  activity  and  watchfulness  on  the 
part  of  some  one  directly  interested  in  its  success  ;  and  it  constantly 
happens  that  a  change  of  management,  or  a  mere  relaxation  of  the  inn- 
keeper's activity,  caused  by  over-prosperity  or  by  engaging  in  other 
pursuits,  reduces  an  hotel  from  the  first  to  an  inferior  rank.  At  the  same 
time  new  houses  are  every  year  opened  in  the  frequented  parts  of  the 
Alps  ;  so  that  between  the  falling  off  of  old  and  the  rise  of  new  inns  it  is 
impossible  to  achieve  invariable  accuracy.  Those  who  use  this  book  will, 
therefore,  confer  a  favour  on  the  Editor,  and  on  future  travellers,  if  they 
will  note  down  the  inns  at  which  they  stop  in  the  course  of  their  tour, 
with  such  observations  as  they  consider  due,  and  communicate  the  same 
to  him  for  use  in  a  future  edition.  Such  information  is  useful  even  in 
respect  to  the  most  frequented  places,  whether  the  traveller's  judgment 
agree  with  that  here  expressed  or  not. 

It  is  generally  known  that  no  country  in  Europe  is  so  well  provided 
with  inns  as  Switzerland.  The  hotels  in  the  more  frequented  places 
leave  very  little  to  be  desired  by  the  most  fastidious,  and  in  country 
places  they  are  much  superior  to  similar  establishments  in  our  own 
country.  In  the  principal  inns  great  attention  is  paid  to  the  requirements 
of  English  guests  in  every  respect.  There  is  always  a  late  dinner  as  well 
as  a  i  o'clock  lunch,  while  there  is  generally  a  resident  English  chaplain 
during  the  summer,  a  small  English  church  being  often  built  close  by  the 
inn.  The  smaller  inns  are,  of  course,  more  simple,  but  clean  and  good, 
while  the  prices  fall  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  frequented 
tourist  centres.  Great  improvements  as  regards  inns  have  been  made  of 
late  years  in  the  French  and  Italian  Alps,  though  as  a  rule  these  are  not 
yet  quite  up  to  the  Swiss  standard.  The  smaller  inns  in  the  Tyrolese, 
Lombard,  and  Venetian  Alps  are  perhaps  no  longer  so  primitive  and 
unsophisticated  as  they  formerly  were,  though,  as  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
Alps,  exceptions  may  be  found  here  and  there.  In  the  first  edition  of 
this  '  Introduction'  Mr.  Ball  stated  that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  stopping  in 
remote  villages  and  hamlets  in  the  Lombard  and  Venetian  Alps  wherever 
convenience  dictated,  without  caring  to  make  previous  enquiry  as  to  the 
accommodation  to  be  found  there,  and  that  he  rarely  failed  to  obtain 
tolerable  food  and  a  clean  bed.  The  present  Editor  (W.  A.  B.  C.)  has 
long  followed  the  same  plan  in  all  parts  of  the  Western  and  Central  Alps, 
and  his  experience  is  similar  to  that  of  Mr.  Ball.  In  a  previous  Arti<  k 
(Art.  V.,  above)  some  remarks  were  made  as  to  the  prices  of  mountain 
inns,  whether  for  passers-by  or  for  those  remaining  some  days  en  pension. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  repeat  here  the  warning  there  given  that  the  appfe 

c 


]  INTRODUCTION. 

rently  excessive  charges  of  high  mountain  inns  should  not  be  complained 
of,  since  the  expenses  of  transport  (often  of  even  water  and  wood)  are 
very  great,  and  the  season  for  which  they  are  open  (and  that  for  the 
benefit  of  a  limited  number  of  travellers  and  subject  to  all  the  chances 
of  the  weather)  is  often  extremely  short. 

In  justice  to  themselves  and  the  public,  travellers  should  take  the 
trouble  to  look  over  their  bills,  and  to  point  out  for  reduction  any  items 
that  appear  unreasonable.  Should  a  simple  remonstrance  fail,  there  is 
generally  no  use  in  further  resistance.  The  extortion  must  be  gross 
indeed  that  will  not  be  sanctioned  by  the  local  authorities,  should  a 
traveller  lose  time  by  resorting  to  them.  There  is  but  one  effective  threat 
to  which  innkeepers  are  usually  very  susceptible — that  of  exposure  in 
English  newspapers  and  guide-books,  and  this,  in  gross  cases,  should 
always  be  enforced.  Cases  of  shameless  extortion  are  usually  confined 
to  the  meaner  class  of  inns,  or  to  those  which  have  been  opened  expressly 
for  tourists  on  some  Alpine  route.  No  reasonable  person  will  object  to 
pay  somewhat  more  than  the  usual  rate  of  accommodation  at  an  inn  set  up 
expressly  for  the  convenience  of  a  limited  class,  but  it  is  well  to  make  the 
owners  understand  that  by  unreasonably  high  charges  they  defeat  their 
own  object. 

One  of  the  chief  matters  which  occupy  the  attention  of  the  great  Con- 
tinental Alpine  Clubs  is  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  Club  huts 
in  suitable  spots  on  the  way  to  the  principal  peaks  and  passes  of  their 
respective  districts.  Formerly  these  were  but  rough  shelters,  but  every 
year  sees  a  steady  advance  and  improvement  in  this  point,  so  that  high 
expeditions  are  very  much  facilitated  thereby. 

In  the  Swiss  Alps  the  huts  are  not  large  or  luxurious,  but  are  generally 
open,  and  nothing  is  charged  for  accommodation  ;  one  of  the  guides  in  the 
nearest  Alpine  centre  is  entrusted  with  the  general  care  of  the  hut,  while 
the  section  of  the  Club  to  which  it  belongs  sends  annually  a  representative 
to  inspect  and  to  report  on  the  actual  condition  of  the  hut  and  its  fittings. 
In  a  few  cases  there  is  a  man  or  woman  resident  during  the  summer, 
who  supplies  provisions,  wood,  &c,  at  a  fixed  rate  ;  here  and  there  wood 
for  fuel  is  placed  in  the  hut,  and  may  be  used  on  a  small  payment,  while 
in  one  or  two  cases  the  hut  (or  part  of  it)  is  closed  by  means  of  a  key. 

The  French  and  Italian  Club  huts  are  almost  always  locked,  and  the 
key  must  be  brought  up  either  from  the  nearest  village  or  by  one  of  the 
local  guides  ;  the  inconveniences  of  this  practice  are  obvious,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  it  will  gradually  give  way  to  the  plan  usual  in  the  Austrian 
huts.  Very  many  of  these  latter  are  really  small  (or  even  large)  mountain 
inns  (with  resident  managers),  having  separate  bedrooms,  dining-rooms, 
&c.  In  these  cases  a  regular  charge  is  made  for  staying  a  few  hours  or 
sleeping  there,  members  of  any  of  the  great  Alpine  Clubs  generally 
paying  half-price.  But  in  many  other  Austrian  huts  the  door  is  secured 
by  a  Club  key.  One  of  these  Club  keys  may  be  purchased  (on  signing  a 
formal  document)  by  any  member  of  the  Club  to  which  the  hut  belongs, 
and  opens  all  the  huts.  This  is  a  very  convenient  and  practical  method  of 
solving  a  real  difficulty.  Most  of  the  Austrian  huts  (not  being  inns,  i.e. 
not  'bewirthschaftet')  contain  a  stock  of  tinned  provisions,  wine,  spirits, 
&c,  according  to  Dr.  Pott's  excellent  system  :  these  are  packed  in  large 


INNS   AND   CLUB   HUTS.  li 

baskets,  and  all  a  traveller  has  to  do  is  to  enter  what  he  has  taken  on 
one  of  the  printed  lists  provided  for  that  purpose  and  giving  the  price  of 
each  article,  and  then  (after  signing  it)  to  drop  it  with  the  sum  due  into 
a  box  placed  in  the  hut  for  the  purpose.  Recently  in  several  huts  in 
the  Austrian  Alps  the  money  in  these  boxes  has  been  robbed,  but  the 
abuse  of  an  excellent  system  will  not  (it  is  to  be  hoped)  lead  to  its 
abolition,  since  by  this  plan  of  provisioning  huts  the  necessity  of  de- 
scending to  the  valleys  between  two  expeditions  is  done  away  with. 
A  man  appointed  by  the  section  owning  it  visits  each  of  these  huts 
periodically  in  order  to  renew  the  stock  of  provisions  and  to  empty  the 
money  boxes. 

The  German  and  Austrian  Alpine  Club  publishes  annually  a  more  or  less 
complete  list  of  all  the  Club  huts  and  small  mountain  inns  in  the  Alps  ;  this 
is  very  convenient,  though  the  information  as  to  the  Western  and  Central 
Alps  is  not  always  quite  up  to  date.  The  same  society  issued  in  1897  a 
most  useful  map,  showing  precisely  the  exact  position  of  every  Club  hut  (to 
whatever  society  it  belongs)  and  small  mountain  inn  in  the  Eastern  Alps  ; 
by  a  system  of  elaborate  signs  it  is  possible  to  tell  at  once  whether  a 
Club  hut  is  inhabited  by  a  manager  during  the  summer,  or  whether  it  is 
only  '  provisioned,5  or  whether  it  is  a  mere  shelter  hut. 

The  Swiss  Alpine  Club  published  in  1896  a  very  handy  and  detailed 
pamphlet  (with  map)  describing  each  of  its  Club  huts,  mentioning  what 
expeditions  may  be  made  from  it,  &c,  though  unluckily  without  a  minute 
account  of  the  path  up  from  the  nearest  village.  'This  booklet  was 
supplemented  in  1898  by  a  set  of  views  of  all  the  Swiss  Club  huts,  old 
and  new.  The  same  Club  also  publishes  in  its  monthly  organ,  '  Alpina,: 
from  time  to  time  reports  as  to  the  precise  actual  condition  of  each  of 
its  Club  huts,  a  plan  which  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  for 
adoption  by  other  Alpine  societies. 

The  Dauphine  Societe"  des  Touristes  also  issues  an  account  of  all  the 
Club  huts  in  that  district,  together  with  the  tariff  for  the  guides  and 
porters  there  (latest  issue  in  1896). 

The  French  Alpine  Club  in  1898  put  forth  a  short  notice  of  its  huts  in 
the  Alps  and  in  the  Pyrenees. 

But  as  far  as  the  present  writer  (W.  A.  B.  C.)  is  aware  there  is  no 
recent  and  full  account  of  the  Club  huts  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club,  the 
list  given  in  its  '  Cronaca'  (1888)  being  naturally  rather  out  of  date. 

It  would  be  an  enormous  practical  advantage  to  mountaineers  of  all 
nationalities  if  the  great  Clubs  would  combine  to  issue  each  spring  a  small 
pamphlet,  stating  the  exact  state  of  each  Club  hut  (for  some  are  ruined, 
more  or  less  permanently,  every  winter),  with  a  clear  account  of  the  route 
thither  (something  like  those  in  the  later  volumes  of  the  *  Climbers' 
Guides'),  for  nothing  is  harder  to  ascertain  than  whether  a  hut  still 
exists,  and  if  so,  where  it  is  situated  precisely,  and  how  to  reach  it. 
Possibly,  though  this  would  almost  be  too  good,  in  the  course  of  time  it 
might  be  arranged  that  all  locked  Club  huts  should  be  made  to  open 
with  similar  keys,  due  restrictions  of  course  being  placed  on  the  sale  of 
such  keys,  as  is  now  done  by  the  German  and  Austrian  Club. 


c  2 


Hi  INTRODUCTION. 


Art.  X. — Life  in  an  Alpine  Valley.* 

The  traveller  in  the  Alps  who  really  takes  an  interest  in  the  lands 
through  which  he  is  making  a  holiday  trip  can  scarcely  fail  to  desire  to 
know  more  about  their  inhabitants  than  he  can  gain  from  those  with 
whom  he  comes  into  contact  in  what  may  be  called  their  official  capacity, 
e.g.  innkeepers,  postal,  railway,  and  diligence  officials.  At  first  he  is  apt 
to  believe  that  the  inhabitants  of  Alpine  lands  have  no  other  care  or 
occupation  than  attending  to  the  wants  of  passing  travellers.  But 
gradually  he  realises  (especially  if  he  visits  his  favourite  haunts  in  winter) 
that  the  state  of  things  to  which  he  is  accustomed  in  summer  is  really 
extraordinary  and  abnormal.  This  feverish  period  lasts  but  two  or 
three  months  in  the  year,  while  for  the  rest  of  the  time  the  inhabitants 
are  living  quite  a  different  life,  and  that  the  life  which  they  led  all  the 
year  round  previous  to  the  comparatively  recent  fashion  on  the  part  of 
the  dwellers  in  the  plains  of  visiting  the  Alps  in  summer.  Few  travellers, 
however,  have  either  the  leisure  or  opportunities  for  studying  the  home  life 
of  the  Alpine  folk  for  themselves,  while  the  abundant  printed  materials 
on  this  subject  are  widely  scattered,  and  are  generally  in  a  foreign 
tongue.  Hence  the  following  outline  sketch  of  the  real  conditions  of  life 
prevailing  among  the  Alpine  folk  may  be  welcome  to  some  readers,  for 
whose  convenience,  should  they  care  to  fill  up  the  scanty  outline  which 
alone  space  allows  us  to  give  here,  some  of  the  more  important  printed 
sources  are  indicated  in  the  notes.  But  by  far  the  best  way  of  getting 
information  is  by  personal  conversation  with  some  of  the  natives,  e.g.  the 
guides,  often  very  intelligent  men,  who  will  be  surprised  and  delighted 
to  find  that  their  travellers  consider  them  as  something  better  than  mere 
path-finders,  and  who  will  readily  describe  their  everyday  life,  amid 
conditions  very  unlike  those  subsisting  in  the  plains. 

i.  The  question  of  origins  is  always  fascinating,  though  the  available 
materials  rarely  allow  of  a  final  and  definite  solution  of  the  problem.  In 
Article  V.  something  was  said  of  the  distribution  throughout  the  Alps  of 
the  various  races  which  represent  either  tribes  that  remained  there 
when  others  descended  into  the  plains,  or  sometimes  tribes  that  have 
been  driven  up  into  the  hills  by  the  pressure  of  strangers  coming  from 
distant  lands,  who  either  absorb  or  expel  those  whom  they  find  in 
possession  of  the  lands  they  covet.  But,  to  whatever  race  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Alps  belong,  the  manner  in  which  they  occupied  the  Alpine 
valleys  seems  to  have  been  very  similar.  In  the  case  of  the  lower 
Alpine  valleys  it  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that  the  early  settlers  took  up 
their  abode  on  the  slopes  high  above  the  valley  stream,  thus  securing  at 
once  pastures  for  their  herds  and  flocks,  wood  for  fuel  and  building, 
much  sunshine,  and  freedom  from  the  evils  of  the  marshy  banks  of  the 

*  This  Article  is  new  and  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Coolidge,  who,  towards  the  end,  has  in- 
cluded the  substance  of  the  page  devoted  by  Mr.  Ball  (in  the  '  Climate  and  Vegetation  '  article 
of  the  old  edition)  to  Chalet  Life  in  the  Alps.  The  present  writer  has  kept  chiefly  in  view  the 
German-speaking  parts  of  Switzerland,  which  are  both  better  known  and  better  organised  than 
the  Alpine  districts  of  the  French,  Italian,  or  Tyrolese  Alps.  Many  illustrations  have  been 
drawn  from  the  past  and  existing  state  of  things  in  Grindelwald,  as  the  residence  of  the  author 
in  that  valley  enables  him  to  command  much  local  information  as  regards  it. 


LIFE   IN   AN   ALPINE  VALLEY.  iiii 

stream  :  only  little  by  little  did  the  increasing  population  descend  to  the 
river  bank,  and  from  sheer  necessity  clear  away  the  reeds  and  brushwood, 
and  even  undertake  an   elementary   kind  of  drainage.     In  the   upper 
Alpine  valleys,  or  the  side  valleys,  the  early  settlers   pushed  along  the 
mountain  slopes  in  the  same  fashion,  above  the  often  narrow  and  rocky 
bed  of  the  stream,  thus  avoiding  too  the  swampy  flats  at  the  junction  of 
this  stream   with  a  mightier  torrent,  and  finally  occupied  the  pasture 
hollow   or  basin  at  the  upper  end  of  the  glen,  immediately  under  the 
great  mountain  peaks.     In  many  cases  doubtless  the  higher  regions  were 
originally  only  inhabited  in  summer  for  purposes  of  pasture.     Now  and 
then  a  few  daring  spirits  or  very  poor  men  did  not  descend  to  the  lower 
regions  in  winter,  and  so  little  by  little  the  upper  regions  became  per- 
manently inhabited,  while  summer  pastures  had  to  be  sought  still  higher 
up.     It  must,  too,  be  always  borne  in  mind  that  each   of  these  early 
settlers  in  the  Alps  (as  now  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the  earth)  brought  with 
him  his  family,  so  that  each  little  settlement  was  '  self-sufficing,'  depend- 
ing solely  on  its  own  exertions  for  obtaining  food,  fuel,  clothing,  and 
other  necessaries  :    each    household    would    have    its    own    meadows, 
pastures,  woods,  &c,  and  but  scanty  communication  with  its  neighbours, 
who  were  perhaps   many  leagues  distant.     As  the  population  increased 
of  course  this  complete  isolation  became  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  rules 
and  regulations  were  adopted  by  common  accord  as  to  various  weighty 
points  regarding  pastures,  forest,  rotation  of  crops,  &c.     But  it  was  only 
very  slowly  that  what  originally  were  mere  customs  hardened  into  fixed 
rules  and  regulations.     Again,  with  increased  population,  and  residence 
all  the  year  round  in  these  high  regions,  came  the  necessity  of  having  a 
permanent  chapel  for  common  religious  worship,  and  this   became  the 
centre  of  the  life  of  the  valley  :   meetings  to  discuss  common  matters  of 
interest  would  be  held  after  service  on  Sundays  or  holy  days  near  or  even 
in    the   chapel,   for   at   those  times   it  was  easiest    to  gather   together 
the   scattered   dwellers   in   the   valley.     In  course  of  time  the  humble 
chapel   would  be  replaced  by   a   more    or   less   stately  parish   church, 
which  would  be  in  an  even  greater  degree  the  centre  of  the  common  life 
of   the   community  :    thither   they  were   bound  to  come  for  baptisms, 
marriages,  burials,  &c.  ;  near  by  dwelt  the  priest,  who  represented  edu- 
cation and  the  outer  world,  and  would  be  the  natural  adviser  and  coun- 
sellor of  his  rustic  parishioners  ;  and  there  would  be  the  warning  bell  to 
tell  of  sudden  calamity,  or  to  gather  together  the  inhabitants  in  haste  for 
any  urgent  cause.     But  it  was  only  at  a  comparatively  late  period  that 
buildings,  other  than  the  priest's  house  (in  which  was  the  school),  and 
the  inn,  clustered  round  the  church  or  were  erected  in  its  neighbour- 
hood.    In  short,  the  origin  of  Alpine  villages  is  usually  quite  modern, 
though  from  very  early  days  the  church  stood  on  a  knoll  visible  far  and 
wide,  and  was  practically  the  nucleus  of  the  future  hamlet.     Even  now  in 
many  Alpine  valleys  there  is  often  no  one  considerable  village,  but  many 
more  or  less  isolated  homesteads,  with  perchance  a  few  small  hamlets  ; 
but  the  'church  town'  (as  they  call  it  in  Cornwall)  is  always  the  most 
important  of  these  hamlets  (though  by  no  means  always  the  largest),  for 
it  is  the  natural  centre  of  the  life  of  the  inhabitants,  and  so  bears  par 
eminence  the  name  of  the  valley  or  commune  of  which  it  is,  so  to  speak, 


liv  INTRODUCTION. 

the  tiny  capital.  The  church  hamlet  may  also  have  its  own  special 
name,  and  travellers  in  the  Alps  soon  discover  (sometimes  by  painful 
experience)  that  in  a  remote  valley  they  must  first  ascertain  where  the 
church  hamlet  is,  and  there  they  may  be  certain  is  the  valley  inn,  not 
unfrequently  in  former  days  kept  by  the  priest  or  pasteur  himself.* 

The  early  history  of  Grindelwald  illustrates  most  of  the  points  indicated 
above.  By  local  tradition  the  earliest  settlements  were  high  above  the 
right  bank  of  the  Liitschine,  and  most  probably  the  valley  was  first 
visited  for  the  sake  of  pasture  in  summer  only.  Various  great  lords 
settled  their  serfs  there  in  widely  scattered  homesteads,  which  only  later 
crept  down  towards  the  river  bed  (even  now  there  are  but  few  houses  here), 
while  in  the  course  of  time  these  lords  were  gradually  bought  out  by  the 
great  house  of  Austin  Canons  at  Interlaken.  The  original  chapel  of  S. 
Petronella,  high  up  in  a  cave  under  the  cliffs  of  the  Eiger  (the  cave  is  still 
shown),  gave  way  to  a  wooden  church  (dedicated  to  our  Lady  of  Inter- 
laken), built  and  consecrated  (c.  1146)  on  the  present  site  by  the  diocesan, 
the  Bishop  of  Lausanne,  this  being  replaced  c.  11 80  by  a  stone  church, 
which  subsisted  till  1793.  It  was  not  till  the  suppression  of  the  religious 
house  of  Interlaken  in  1528- 1532,  at  the  time  of  the  Bernese  Reformation, 
that  the  men  of  Grindelwald  passed  from  the  condition  of  serfs  of  the 
convent  to  that  of  subjects  of  the  ambitious  and  encroaching  town  of 
Bern.  The  valley  then,  too,  first  became  a  separate  parish,  having 
previously  been  only  a  chapelry  of  the  religious  house,  and  served  by  one 
or  other  of  the  Canons.  To  this  day  the  traveller  can  see  for  himself  that 
the  population  live  in  widely  scattered  homesteads,  or  in  one  or  two 
small  hamlets  (each  bearing  its  own  name).  He  will  also  soon  discover 
that  there  is  only  a  valley  of  Grindelwald,  but  no  village  of  that  name, 
the  church  hamlet,  with  its  few  houses,  being  properly  known  as  '  Gydis- 
dorf,'  a  name  which  is  found  in  the  documents  relating  to  the  valley  as 
early  as  1275,  while  later  we  hear  of  a  meeting  of  the  men  of  the  valley 
held  on  i  the  hillock  at  Gydisdorf.' 

2.  The  simplicity  which,  as  we  have  seen,  characterises  the  occupation 
and  gradual  settlement  of  an  Alpine  valley  is  even  nowadays  maintained 
in  the  daily  manner  of  life  of  its  inhabitants.  Not  much  money  circu- 
lates, for,  save  those  connected  in  some  way  with  the  reception,  &c,  of 
foreign  visitors,  little  money  is  to  be  found  there,  and  most  transactions 
are  made  in  kind.  There  are  few  industries  in  the  mountain  valleys, 
except  in  such  cases  as  the  wood-carving  industry  at  Brienz  and  in  the 
Grodenerthal.  Each  household  is  chiefly  occupied  in  supplying  its  own 
wants,  though  of  course  there  are  a  few  necessary  artisans,  such  as 
bakers,  cobblers,  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  and  the  like.  It  is  cheaper 
now  to  import  corn  from  the  lowlands  than  to  grow  it  at  considerable 
heights  (where,  as  at  La  Berarde,  in  the  Dauphine  Alps,  the  seed  must 
remain  two  winters  in  the  earth,  and  yet  the  corn  is  cut  while  still  but 
half  ripe),  so  that  in  such  a  valley  there  is  not  much  arable  land,  and  that 
little  mainly  devoted  to  potatoes  and  other  vegetables.     Meat  and  wine 

•  On  the  origin  of  Alpine  villages  see  Herr  von  Inama-Sternegg's  excellent  essay  'Die 
Entwickelung  der  deutschen  Alpendorfer,'  in  series  v.  vol.  4  of  Riehl's  Historisches  Tascken- 
buch  (Leipzig,  1874),  and  also  part  2  (and  particularly  the  notes)  of  Prof.  A.  von  Miaskowskfs 
Die    Ver/assung  der  Land;  Alpen-  und  Forstwirthschaft  d.  deutschen  Schiveiz  (Basel,  1878). 


LIFE   IN   AN   ALPINE   VALLEY.  lv 

are  rare  luxuries  in  a  mountain  valley,  though  occasionally  a  pig  may  be 
salted  down,  and  half  a  bottle  of  wine  drunk  on  some  special  occasion  of 
rejoicing.  Spinning  and  weaving  have  almost  disappeared,  as  cloth  can 
be  purchased  at  low  prices,  and  then  made  up  at  home.  The  young 
and  active  men  in  many  cases  take  naturally  to  hunting  (especially 
chamois-hunting),  though  more  for  pleasure  than  as  a  regular  business. 
But  although  such  conditions  of  life  may  seem  poor  and  cramped  to  towns- 
men, the  mountain  dwellers  lead  a  free  and  healthy  life,  having  but  few 
wants,  and  those  mainly  supplied  on  the  spot,  though  at  the  price  of 
much  labour  and  fatigue.  Of  these  wants  food  and  wood  are  the 
principal.  The  former  want  is  satisfied  by  the  milk,  cheese,  butter,  &c, 
all  due  to  the  cherished  kine,  and  the  latter  (whether  wood  for  fuel  or  for 
house-building)  by  the  forests  which  clothe  the  upper  slopes  of  most  moun- 
tain valleys,  though  a  few  communities  have  recklessly  sold  their  woods, 
and  now  bitterly  regret  it.  The  care  of  the  cattle  and  the  procuring  of  wood 
from  the  forests  (especially  in  winter)  thus  constitute  the  greater  part  ot 
the  real  life  of  the  inhabitants  of  mountain  valleys.  It  is  thus  practically 
an  exclusively  pastoral  one,  so  that  the  ownership  and  use  of  the  land, 
whether  meadow,  pasture,  or  forest,  is  the  foundation  on  which  rests  the 
welfare,  and  indeed  the  very  existence,  of  an  Alpine  community.  Hence 
we  find  that  as  soon  as  the  first  colonising  process  is  over  fixed 
arrangements  must  be  made,  by  custom  or  by  law,  as  to  the  land  in  any 
particular  valley.  Private  property,  indeed,  exists  in  the  case  of  the 
homestead,  and  perhaps  a  field  or  two,  but  the  rest  of  the  land  in  a 
mountain  valley  is  held  as  common  property,  not  to  be  used  at  any  man's 
will,  but  subject  to  the  rights  of  each  man  in  this  property  belonging  to 
all  and  maintained  for  the  common  benefit  according  to  strict  customs 
and  rules.  Hence  we  find  that  in  each  mountain  valley  there  comes  a 
time  when  such  customs  or  rules  obtain  force  of  law,  which  regulates  the 
use  of  the  land  owned  in  common.  It  is  this  common  ownership  of 
land,  subject  to  the  rights  of  user  on  the  part  of  each  male  inhabitant, 
that  constitutes  the  special  characteristic  institution  of  the  Alpine  folk, 
the  Commune  or  Gemeinde  being  the  name  given  to  the  common  owners, 
each  of  whom  is  a  burgher,  and  as  such  entitled  to  special  rights  of  user. 
All  through  the  Middle  Ages  the  Communes  were  purely  pastoral  asso- 
ciations, resting  on  the  regulated  user  of  the  common  lands  {Albnend, 
originally  written  '  Allmeind,'  and  related  to  the  word  '  Gemeinde '). 
The  original  settlers,  and  those  who  came  soon  after,  were  alone  both 
owners  and  users  of  the  land,  and  in  their  Common  Meetings  settled  all 
matters  relating  to  the  common  land  in  the  valley  and  rights  of  user  over 
it.  Hence,  save  in  very  rare  cases,  all  the  inhabitants  were  burghers, 
and  there  were  but  few  who  came  to  live  in  the  valley  without  being  born 
in  it.  The  latter  class  was  known  as  l  Beisassen '  or  *  Hintersassen ' 
(in  English  municipal  history  '  foreigners '),  for  though  residents  they 
were  not  burghers.  It  was  not  till  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  that  this  class  became  important  in  point  of  numbers,  partly 
from  easier  means  of  travel,  partly  for  other  reasons.  It  was  the  neces- 
sity of  replacing  the  old  system  of  Poor  Relief  by  a  new  system  which 
completely  altered  the  character  of  these  pastoral  associations.  Formerly 
it  would  rarely  happen  that  any  *  burgher '  could,  with  his  rights  of  user 


lvi  INTRODUCTION. 

of  the  common  land,  fall  into  great  need  and  distress,  save  in  the  case 
of  illness  and  old  age,  when  the  alms  of  the  faithful  in  the  valley  sufficed 
to  support  a  brother  in  need.  But  when  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
in  the  Alpine  districts  as  elsewhere,  the  increasing  number  of  '  residents ' 
taxed  that  charity  heavily,  a  special  provision  had  to  be  made  (in 
Switzerland  it  is  dated  1 55 1)  by  which  each  Commune  was  bound  to 
support,  in  case  of  need,  not  merely  its  full  members,  but  also  those  who 
were  merely  'residents.'  Hence  for  the  first  time  there  arose  a  dis- 
tinction, which  gradually  became  more  and  more  important,  between  the 
old  '  Burgergemeinden '  (or  associations  of  full  '  burghers  ')  *  and  the 
new  '  Einwohnergemeinden '  (or  the  communes  consisting  of  all  residents 
in  the  valley,  whether  burghers  or  not).  The  former  were  exclusively 
pastoral  ;  the  latter  became  more  and  more  political,  and  it  is  obvious 
that  great  difficulties  would  arise  as  to  the  sources  whence  to  procure 
funds  to  meet  these  new  calls,  whether  by  imposing  rates  or  by  accumu- 
lating funds  for  the  special  purposes  of  poor  relief.  The  story  is  long 
and  complicated,  and  here  it  need  only  be  said  that  in  the  Swiss  Alps 
the  two  kinds  of  Communes  still  subsist  side  by  side,  save  in  glens  {e.g. 
Grindelwald)  where  there  are  practically  only  4  burghers,'  or  where  the 
1  burghers '  have  more  or  less  freely  made  over  all  or  part  of  their 
common  property  to  the  new  political  associations.  Yet  both  kinds  of 
Communes  have  one  very  important  feature  in  common — that  Swiss 
citizenship,  or  even  Cantonal  citizenship,  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  person 
who  has  previously  become,  whether  by  purchase  or  in  any  other  manner, 
a  member  of  a  Commune.  The  Commune  is  the  unit  out  of  which  first 
the  Canton,  and  then  the  Swiss  Confederation  itself,  has  been  built  up. 
And  the  Commune  in  its  original  sense  is  simply  the  association  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a  valley,  based  on  the  common  ownership  of  land,  which 
is  subject  to  certain  well  defined  rights  of  user  on  the  part  of  each  of  the 
male  burghers  of  full  age.  This  pastoral  community  is  thus  the  basis  of 
the  institutions  by  which  the  Alpine  folk  have  been  ruled  in  the  past,  and 
are  still  ruled  in  the  present.  Its  importance,  therefore,  in  considering 
their  manner  of  life  cannot  be  over-estimated,  t 

Space  does  not  allow  us  to  illustrate  the  above  sketch  by  even  a  brief 
notice  of  the  development  of  the  Commune  in  the  valley  of  Grindelwald, 
though  existing  documents  allow  us  to  form  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  course 
of  events.  It  may,  however,  be  stated  that  while  the  valley  (which 
technically  includes  the  hamlet  of  Burglauenen,  the  first  railway  station 
on  the  way  down  towards  Interlaken)  forms  a  single  'Einwohner- 
gemeinde '  from  a  political,  ecclesiastical,  and  educational  point  of  view, 

*  An  exact  parallel  to  these  '  Burgergemeinden  '  still  exists  in  Oxford,  where  the  '  freemen  ' 
of  the  city  (i.e.  the  '  burghers  ')  still  have  the  right  of  pasturing  their  cattle  on  the  common  pas- 
ture ground  known  as  '  Port  Meadow.' 

f  The  clearest  account  of  this  very  intricate  subject  that  is  known  to  the  present  writer  is 
contained  in  Professor  A.  von  Orelli's  admirable  work  Das  Staatsrecht  der  schweizerischen 
Eidgenossenschaft  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1885),  p.  121  sqq.  Those  who  desire  to  go  more  deeply  into 
the  subject  may  consult  for  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  Communes  Prof.  F.  von 
Wyss's  elaborate  e«say  entitled  '  Die  schweizerischen  Landgemeinden  in  ihrer  historischen 
\  ntwickelung,'  in  his  Abhandlungen  zur  Geschichte  des  schweizerischen  qffentlichen  Rechts 
(Zurich,  1892),  while  for  the  actual  state  of  the  Communes  in  different  Cantons  the  student 
should  refer  to  vol.  ii.  (Zurich,  1873)  of  Max  Wirth's  Allgemeine  Beschreibung  und Statistik  de? 
Schweiz. 


LIFE   IN  AN   ALPINE   VALLEY.  lvii 

yet  it  is  composed  of  no  fewer  than  seven  Communes  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  common  pastures,  of  which  we  must  now  speak. 

3.  The  Alps  or  Common  Pastures. — Stress  has  been  laid  in  the  pre- 
ceding remarks  on  the  position  of  an  inhabitant  of  a  Swiss  mountain 
valley,  as  member  of  a  sort  of  corporation  with  common  lands,  subject  to 
certain  limited  though  well  defined  rights  of  user.  But  though  it  may  be 
said  generally  that  this  membership  is  of  vital  importance  to  a  peasant, 
yet  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  private  property  also  prevails  to  a 
considerable  extent.  A  fairly  well  to  do  Swiss  peasant  {e.g.  in  the  valley 
of  Grindelwald)  is  therefore  the  owner  of  two  different  sets  of  rights  : — 

i.  Private  Property. — This  includes,  or  may  include,  three  items — 

(a)  The  Homestead,  i.e.  the  dwelling-house,  with  the  land  (arable  or 
meadow)  surrounding  it,  this,  of  course,  varying  in  extent  and  in  value. 

(b)  A  '  Vorsass '  ('  Maiensass,'  '  Mayen,'  or  '  Voralp '),  i.e.  a  plot 
(larger  or  smaller,  as  the  case  may  be)  of  land  on  the  lower  mountain 
slopes  immediately  above  the  village,  or  the  scattered  homesteads  of 
which  the  valley  is  made  up ;  this  land  may  be  used  at  the  free  will  of  the 
owner  for  arable  purposes  {e.g.  potatoes),  or  as  pastures  for  the  cattle  in 
spring  or  autumn,  or  as  meadow  land,  the  hay  being  cut  and  stored  for 
the  use  of  the  owner's  cattle  in  the  winter.  A  house,  with  one  or  more 
dwelling-rooms,  is  usually  found  on  each  *  Vorsass.' 

In  the  case  of  both  items  the  owner  has  the  fullest  rights  of  private 
ownership  as  to  the  use  he  may  choose  to  make  of  any  part  of  his  land, 
rotation  of  crops,  &c.  Naturally  these  bits  of  land  first  received  special 
names,  so  that  in  the  valley  of  Grindelwald  we  hear  already  in  1146  of 
*  Schonegg  '  (N.  of  the  parish  church,  and  the  former  home  of  the  famous 
guide  Christian  Aimer),  while  the  still  surviving  name  of  'auf  der 
Herrschaft'  (applied  to  certain  lands  with  houses  at  the  N.W.  end  of  the 
valley)  recalls  the  former  owners,  the  lords  of  the  castle  of  Unspunnen, 
near  Interlaken,  who  in  1432  parted  with  them  (and  also  with  the  '  Buss 
Alp'  above)  to  the  Canons  of  Interlaken.  In  fact  the  number  of  local 
names  in  the  valley  of  Grindelwald  which  are  preserved  in  old  documents, 
and  are  still  in  daily  use,  is  quite  extraordinary  when  one  considers  that 
the  valley  is  of  no  very  great  size,  and  is  and  always  has  been  an  Alpine 
valley. 

(c)  A  bit  oi forest,  as  to  which  the  owner  is  tied  down  by  various  regu- 
lations, intended  to  prevent  undue  thinning  and  felling  in  general,  though 
(as  in  the  case  of  communal  forests)  these  regulations  are  generally  of 
recent  date. 

ii.  Rights  of  User  over  Land  held  in  Common. — It  is  a  matter  of  no 
surprise  to  find  that  very  early  indeed,  if  not  from  the  time  of  the  first 
colonists,  the  bits  of  land  in  our  Alpine  valley  best  suited  for  use  as 
arable  or  meadow  land  passed  into  private  ownership,  originally,  no 
doubt,  that  of  some  great  religious  house  or  feudal  lord,  and  late 
feudalism  dissolved,  that  of  the  former  serfs,  who  stepped  into  the 
position  of  their  late  feudal  superiors.  But  the  mountain  pastures  to  a 
very  large  extent  (and  the  forests  also  in  some  degree)  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  Commune,  subject  to  the  rights  of  user  to  which  1 
member  of  that  commune  was  entitled.  These  mountain  pastures  are  in 
Switzerland   called    'Alps,'  and   we  must  now  proceed  to  give  pom* 


lviii  INTRODUCTION. 

account  of  them,  reminding  our  readers  of  the  immense  importance  of 
these  '  Alps '  to  the  Alpine  folk,  who  are,  as  shown  above,  pre-eminently 
a  pastoral  race.* 

It  seems  most  convenient  to  treat  this  subject  (which  is  but  little 
known  to  the  generality  of  English  travellers)  under  three  heads — 

What  is  meant  precisely  by  an  '  Alp? 

Who  are  entitled  to  rights  of  user  on  an  '  Alp? 

What  is  the  manner  of  life  on  a?i '  Alp? 

(a)  What  is  an  ''Alp? — An  'Alp5  may  be  generally  described  as  'a 
mountain  pasture,  specially  fitted  for  pasturing  cows  in  milk,'  so  that 
cheese  can  be  made  on  the  spot  (there  are  also  special  '  Alpen '  for 
heifers,  sheep,  and  goats).  This  is  the  original  meaning  of  the  word, 
which  is  now  frequently  used  also  of  the  lofty  peaks  that  overhang  the 
mountain  pastures.  The  term  used  in  the  Tyrol  is  '  Aim,'  which  some 
consider  a  shortened  form  of  'Allmend'  (common  land),  though  it  is 
probably  but  a  mutilated  form  of  '  Alp.'  f 

It  is  obvious  that  •  alps '  in  this  sense  are  of  immemorial  antiquity. 
In  739  Abbo  by  his  will  gave  his  *  alpes  in  Cenisio '  to  the  monastery  of 
Novalesa,  which  he  had  founded  in  726.J  In  the  Appenzell  Inner  Rhoden 
vol.  (Soleure,  1899)  °f  tne  '  Schweizerische  Alpstatistik '  (p.  1)  it  is  stated 
that  the  Sambtiser  alp,  on  the  Santis,  was  given  by  its  owner  to  the 
great  abbey  of  St.  Gallen  as  early  as  868,  while  in  the  charter  of  founda- 
tion (dated  1061)  of  the  parish  church  of  Appenzell  the   Megglis  alp, 

*  In  the  following  remarks  we  have  mainly  in  view  the  '  Alps  '  of  the  German-speaking  parts 
of  the  Swiss  Alps  ;  comparatively  little  has  been  published  or  is  known  as  to  those  of  the 
'  Suisse  Romande'  (which  is,  too,  largely  non-Alpine),  that  little  agreeing  in  its  main  lines  with  the 
system  prevailing  in  the  German-speaking  districts.  In  the  French,  South  Swiss,  and  Italian  Alps 
the  pastures,  unless  (as  in  the  Tarentaise)  managed  by  Swiss  herdsmen  on  Swiss  principles,  are  in 
a  very  bad  and  backward  state,  largely  owing  to  the  almost  incredible  ravages  committed  (as  in 
the  Dauphine  Alps,  Ticino,  Graubiinden)  by  the  sheep  from  the  plains  of  Provence  or  the  Ber- 
gamasca,  to  whose  owners  these  pastures  are  often  let.  As  to  the  French  Alps  and  their  present 
generally  wretched  condition,  M.  Briot's  Etudes  s?tr  I Economic  Aipestrc  (Nancy,  1896)  supplies 
much  authentic  information.  In  the  Tyrolese  Alps  the  pastures  are  as  a  rule  badly  managed 
and  little  cared  for  :  see  on  these  in  particular  the  work  by  Dr.  Martin  Wilckens  entitled  Die 
Aipemvirthschaft  der  Schweiz,  des  Algdus  und  der  tvestosterreichischen  Alpenldnder  (Vienna, 
1874). 

Amid  the  multitude  of  excellent  works  relating  to  the  \  Alps '  of  German-speaking  Switzer- 
land the  most  recent  and  most  comprehensive  is  that  (nearly  1,000  pages)  by  Prof.  Felix  Anderegg, 
Illustriertes  Lehrbuch  fur  die  gesamte  schweizerische  AlpwirthschaJ rt  (3  parts,  Bern,  1897-8). 
For  statistics  (which  are,  however,  not  unfrequently  corrected  by  Prof.  Anderegg's  book)  the 
official  work,  Die  Alpenwirthschaft  der  Schweiz  im  Jahre  1864  (Bern,  1868),  must  be  consulted. 
In  the  series  called  '  Schweizerische  Alpstatistik  '  (Solothurn)  a  set  of  monographs  on  the 
'  Alps'  of  the  Swiss  cantons  is  being  published — rural  Basel,  Solothurn,  St.  Gallen,  Nidwalden, 
Uri,  Glarus,  Schwyz,  and  Appenzell  Inner  Rhoden  have  as  yet  been  treated.  The  history  is 
best  set  forth  in  two  books  by  Prof.  A.  von  Miaskowski,  Die  schweizerische  Allmend  in 
ihrer  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung  (Leipzig,  1879),  and  Die  Verfassung  der  Land-,  Alfien- 
und  Forstwirthschaft  der  deutschen  Schweiz  (Basel,  1878).  Many  technical  details  may  be 
found  in  Dr.  Schatzmann's  Alpwirthschaftliche  Volksschriften  (new  edition,  2  vols.,  1887),  and 
the  same  writer's  article  '  Alpwirthschaft '  in  vol.  i.  of  Furrer's  Volkswirthschafts-Lexikon  der 
Schweiz  (Bern,  1885).  More  general  accounts  are  given  in  Berlepsch's  Die  A Ipen  and  Schwei- 
zerkunde.  The  history  of  the  'Alps'  in  the  valley  of  Grindelwald  must  be  worked  out  from  the 
documents  (down  to  1353)  in  the  Fontes  Rerum  Bernensium  (8  vols.,  Bern,  1883-1893),  and  in 
the  muniments  of  the  Austin  house  of  Interlaken  (calendar  published  by  Fr.  Stettler  in  1849  at 
Coire  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  Regesten  der  Archive  der  schweizerischen  Eidgenossenschaft),  while 
many  local  details  are  contained  in  the  periodical  called  Der  Gletschermann,  which  Herr 
Strasser  (the  pastor  of  Grindelwald)  put  forth  at  Grindelwald  in  1888-1890. 

f  Schweizerisches  /diotikon,  vol.  i.  p.  190  ;  Jahrbuch  des  osterr.  Atyenvereins,  1866,  p. 
403,  1867,  p.  374  ;  Zeitschrift  of  the  same  society,  1873,  P-  I3°- 

X  See  Vaccarone's  Le  Vie  delle  Alpi  Occidentali,  p.  29,  and  Menabrea,  Des Origines  FSodales 
dans  les  Alpes  Occidentales,  p.  107. 


LIFE   IN   AN   ALPINE   VALLEY.  lix 

higher  up  the  same  peak,  is  mentioned,  as  well  as  several  other  '  alps.' 
The  first  distinct  mention  of  lofty  '  alps !  that  the  present  writer  has  come 
across  dates  from  the  year  999,  when  the  Archbishop  of  Milan  (as 
trustee  for  the  church  of  Brebia,  in  the  Val  d'Ossola)  exchanged  certain 
lands,  &c,  with  the  monastery  of  San  Salvatore,  at  Arona  :  among  the 
lands  received  by  the  monastery  are  four  '  alpicellae,'  situated  at  the  head 
of  the  Val  Anzasca,  two  of  which  bear  the  familiar  names  of  Macugnaga 
and  Rofel.*  Thus  even  over  900  years  ago  '  alps  '  existed.  In  the  valley 
of  Grindelwald  the  first  distinct  mention  of  an  *  alp '  as  such  is  that  of  the 
Scheidegg  Alp  in  1238/j" 

No  doubt  originally,  when  there  were  few  cows  as  compared  with  the 
extent  of  available  mountain  pasture,  the  right  of  grazing  was  unlimited 
and  unfettered  by  any  regulations,  but  as  the  population,  and  therefore 
the  number  of  cows,  increased,  it  became  necessary  to  make  regulations. 
Hence  there  arose  a  rather  complicated  system,  which  is  found  in  full 
vigour  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  is  no  doubt  considerably  older.  In 
its  main  outlines  it  was  that  which  still  obtains.  Its  leading  principle  was 
that  only  cows  that  had  wintered  in  that  particular  valley  should  be 
allowed  to  graze  in  summer  on  the  '  alps '  of  that  valley,  a  regulation 
obviously  designed  to  limit  the  enjoyment  of  the  '  alps '  to  the  cows  of 
the  burghers,  to  the  exclusion  of  '  foreign  cattle.'  Within  the  valley 
there  was  also  a  restriction  introduced  which  was  intended  to  prevent  the 
over-use  of  the  'alps,'  which  might  thereby  become  exhausted  in  point 
of  fertility.  This  restriction  consisted  in  limiting  the  number  of  the  cows, 
even  of  the  burghers,  which  could  be  pastured  on  each  'alp.'  Each 
'  alp '  was  thus  divided  into  '  Kuhstosse,'  i.e.  cow-shares,  each  share 
being  a  plot  of  ground  which  would  suffice  for  the  maintenance  of  one 
cow  during  the  summer.  These  shares  were  carefully  recorded  in  the 
'Alp  Register'  ('Seybuch,'  'Alpbuch,'  or  ' Alpenrodel'),  and  in  view 
of  the  overwhelming  importance  of  the  pastures  for  the  inhabitants  it  was 
each  man's  natural  interest  to  keep  a  sharp  look-out  on  his  neighbour,  so 
as  to  make  sure  that  he  did  not  transgress  these  regulations.  Alienation 
of  these  shares  in  any  way  to  non-burghers  was  prohibited  under 
stringent  penalties.  The  first  'Alp  Regulations'  in  the  valley  of 
Grindelwald  (for  the  six  alps  of  the  monastery — as  the  Buss  Alp  was  not 
purchased  by  the  monastery  of  Interlaken  till  1432 — and  the  '  Gletscher 
Alp,'  or  Zasenberg)  date  from  1404,  and  contain  the  provision  as  to  the 
wintering  of  the  cattle  which  can  be  sent  up  to  the  '  alp,'  each  burgher 
being  allowed  to  send  his  cows  only  to  that  'alp'  on  which  he  had 
rights  owing  to  his  possession  of  a  particular  bit  of  land  in  th< 
valley  (see  also  under  ^,  below).  Both  provisions  are  found  in  the 
existing  'Regulations'  of  1883.  Already  in  1404  there  were  seven 
'  Alpen,'  and  now,  therefore, '  Alp  Communes,'  in  the  valley  of  Grindelwald 
—Scheidegg  (Grosse  S.,  of  course),  Grindel,  Holzmatten,  Bach,  and  Buss, 
all  on  the  N.  slope  of  the  valley,  while  Itramen  is  on  the  way  up  to  the 
Mannlichen,  and  Wargisthal  on  the  way  up  to  the  Wengern  Alp.  (1  he 
Wengern  Alp  belongs  to  the  commune  of  Lauterbrunnen,  is  mentioned 
as  early  as  1268,  and  in  1318  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  monastery- 

•  See  Bianchettis  U  Ossoia  Inferiore,  i.  p.  97  and  ii.  p.  as- 
t  Fontes  Rerum  Bernensium,  it.  p.  176 


lx 


INTRODUCTION. 


of  Interlaken.  The  Canons  too  from  1335  onwards  acquired  bit  by  bit 
all  the  '  Kuhrechte '  on  the  '  alp  '  of  Miirren). 

It  may  interest  our  readers  to  learn  that  those  who  have  rights  of  user 
on  an  '  alp '  may  send  thither  other  animals  instead  of  cows,  the  pro- 
portion being  thus  reckoned  (at  Grindelwald)  to  one  cow  or  «  Kuhstoss  : ' 
2  heifers,  3  calves  or  sheep,  4  pigs,  or  8  goats.  As  to  horses,  the  regu- 
lations of  the  different  'alps5  vary.  The  sheep  and  goats  go  to  the 
highest  pastures,  whither  heavy  cows  cannot  climb  ;  the  pigs  remain  with 
the  cows,  and  the  heifers  have  'alps  5  to  themselves. 

The  following  tables  may  be  of  interest  to  our  readers  ;  the  first  is 
taken  from  Professor  Anderegg's  book  (pp.  135  and  661),  that  corrects 
the  '  Alpwirthschaft '  in  1864,  from  which  the  other  special  tables  are 
extracted.* 


I.   The  'Alps'  in  the  Swiss  Mountain  Cantons. 


Canton 

No.  of 

'  Alps ' 

No.  of 
'  KuhstSsse  ' 

Capital  Value  of  the  ! 
•  Alps ' 

I.   Bern       .... 

836 

(597) 

39,965 

12,707,000  frcs. 

2.   Grisons .... 

646 

(596) 

63,317 

7,429,000 

3.   Tessin    .... 

435 

(400) 

24,473 

2,218,000 

4.  Vallais  .... 

422 

(272) 

20,171 

4,431,000 

5.  Vaud      .... 

409 

(385) 

23,005 

9,816,000 

6.  Obwalden 

281 

(202) 

8,534 

3,537,5oo 

7.  St.  Gallen      . 

274 

(234) 

24,907 

7,809,600 

8.   Neuchatel 

245 

(776) 

7,382 

3,675,000 

9.   Lucerne 

214 

(176) 

6,258 

3,815,000 

10.   Schwyz  .... 

208 

(177) 

12,945 

6,968,000 

11.   Freiburg 

192 

(178) 

9,901 

6,520,000 

12.  Appenzell  (Inn.  Rhod.)  . 

124 

(112) 

3,282 

768,800 

13.   Glarus    .... 

102 

(90) 

8,813 

5,202,000 

14.  Nidwalden 

99 

(81) 

4,436 

1,821,600 

15.  Appenzell   (Auss.  Rhod.) 

93 

(93) 

1,832 

827,700 

16.   Uri 

89 

(81) 

8,527 

2,187,200 

17.   Solothurn 

68 

(68) 

1,632 

836,400 

18.   Basel  (rural)   . 

38 

(38) 

889 

629,800 

19.   Zug         .... 

3 

(3) 

120 

144,300 

4,778  (4,559) 

270,389 

81,573,300 

*  Prof.  Anderegg  adopts  a  different  reckoning  of '  Alps "  from  that  of  the  1864  Alpenwirth- 
sckaft,  so  that  the  numbers  in  the  latter  are  given  in  brackets  in  col.  1.  There  are,  therefore, 
some  discrepancies,  partly  owing  also  to  omissions  in  the  1864  book  ;  the  greatest  is  the  case  of 
Neuchatel,  in  which  the  1864  book  counts  the  shares  of  individual  users,  instead  of  (as  Prof. 
Anderegg)  the  actual  number  of  independent  '  alps.'  The  Schweizerische  Alpstatistik  furnishes 
more  local  corrections  for  the  cantons  that  have  as  yet  been  described  in  that  series  ;  e.g.  Uri 
(5,036,400  frcs.  capital  value)  has  10,354  '  Kuhstosse,'  divided  among  102  'alps:'  Nidwalden 
(3,673,025 frcs.),  5,207  on  166  'alps  ;'  Glarus  (6,159,280  frcs.),  8,054  on  87  ;  St.  Gallen  (13,986,700 
frcs.),  21,744  on  304  ;  Solothurn  (2,395,215  frcs.),  4,179  on  209  ;  rural  Basel  (690,620  frcs.),  1,026  on 
60  ;  Schwyz  (11,280,000  frcs.),  17,492  on  417  ;  and  Appenzell  Inner  Rhoden  (2,682,955  frcs.),  4,008 
on  168.  Unluckily  Prof.  Anderegg  does  not  give  the  number  of  '  Kuhstosse'  per  canton,  so  that 
the  1864  number  is  given  in  col.  2,  but  he  reckons  (p.  665)  that  the  actual  total  of  '  Kuhstosse  ' 
ifnow  318,792,  an  increase  of  48,403  on  the  census  of  1864.  The  capital  value  (in  col.  3)  is 
taken  from  Prof.  Anderegg,  the  total  amount  of  that  of  1864  being  77,186,103  frcs. 


LIFE    IN   AN   ALPINE   VALLEY. 


lxi 


II.    Some  well  known  Swiss  'Alp  Communes.' 


Name                           No.  of  '  Alps '          No.  of  ■  Kuhstosse '  I        Capital  Value 

Grindelwald 

Lauterbrunnen  . 

Meiringen 

Zermatt 

Saas .... 

Pontresina 

7                          2,176 

6  1,093 

5  742 

7  483 

6  647 

7  4i5 

352,512  frcs. 

165,650 

123,665 

24,429 

30,192 

55,195 

III.    Some  well  known  Swiss  'Alps.' 


Name                                               Name  of  Owner 

No.  of  \  Kuhstosse ' 

Grindelwald : — 

Grindel     .          .          .          .   |        Same  Alp  commune 

475 

Bussalp     . 
Scheidegg 
Itramen    . 

1                         ,, 

43o 
360 
346 

Bachalp    . 
Wargisthal 
Holzmatten 

,, 

260 
205 
100 

Wengernalp  . 
Engstlenalp   . 
Belalp  . 
Fee 

Lauterbrunnen 
Innertkirchen 
Mund 
Fee 

300 

449i 
45i 
461 

As  the  result  of  old  quarrels,  and  probably  deeds  of  violence,  some  of 
the  Swiss  'alps'  extend  beyond  what  might  seem  to  be  their  natural 
limits — e.g.  Scheidegg  (Grindelwald)  extends  across  the  Gr.  Scheidegg 
nearly  to  where  the  Schwarzwald  inn  now  stands,  while  the  Blackenalp 
(near  Engelberg)  belongs  (since  the  thirteenth  century)  to  Attinghausen, 
near  Altdorf  (Uri),  on  the  other  side  of  the  Surenen  Pass,  and  the 
Ennetmarchtalp,  on  the  Urnerboden  (since  at  least  the  twelfth  century), 
to  Spiringen,  in  the  Schachenthal,  above  Altdorf,  though  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Klausen  Pass.  The  last  named  alp  is  said  to  be  the  most 
considerable  in  Switzerland,  having  a  summer  population  of  350  souls, 
1,300  '  Kuhstosse'  and  154  milk  huts  (besides  145  stables  and  30  cheese 
storehouses),  while  its  capital  value  is  put  at  about  a  million  francs.  It 
would,  no  doubt,  be  possible  and  very  interesting  to  trace  out  from  old 
documents  these  gradual  encroachments,  which  introduce  quaint  varia- 
tions into  the  geography  of  some  of  the  Cantons. 

(6)  Who  are  Entitled  to  Rights  of  User  on  an  l  Alp* — From  what  has 
been  said  previously  it  will  be  clear  to  the  reader  that  neither  i  residents ' 
in  an  Alp  Commune  nor  foreigners  (unless  in  either  case  by  virtue  of  a 
lease)  can  have  any  rights  over  the  '  alps '  in  that  Alpine  valley.  Those 
rights   are    strictly  limited   to   the    *  burghers.5      Hut    here   comes    in   a 


lxii 


INTRODUCTION. 


difference,  for  these  rights  can  be  enjoyed  by  the  burghers  in  one  of  two 
capacities — 

(i)  As  Owner  of  a  Particular  Bit  of  Land.— I.e.  the  right  of  pasture 
('  Kuhrecht5  for  one,  two,  or  more  cows)  is  annexed  to  the  possession  of 
a  plot  of  land  in  the  valley,  and  cannot  be  alienated  from  it.  The  rights 
here  are  '  real,'  and  thus  belong  not  to  each  burgher  as  such,  but  to  a 
burgher  who  happens  to  possess  one  of  the  bits  of  land  (of  course  care- 
fully registered  in  an  official  book)  to  which  are  annexed  one  or  more 
'  Kuhrechte.' 

This  is  the  system  which  obtains  (and  existed  already  in  1404)  in  the 
valley  of  Grindelwald,  so  that  of  course  the  value  of  a  piece  of  land  there 
depends  on  how  many,  if  any,  cow-rights  are  annexed  to  it. 

(2)  As  Burgher  of  that  Particular  Alp  Commune  or  '  Alftgemeinde? — 
I.e.  each  male  burgher  of  full  age  has  the  right  of  pasturing  his  cows  (as  far 
as  the  'alp5  will  suffice)  on  that  particular  'alp5  which  belongs  to  his 
own  Commune. 

These  rights  are  thus  'personal,5  e.g.  at  Hasleberg  and  in  the 
Emmenthal. 

Hitherto  under  this  head  we  have  spoken  only  of  '  alps 5  which  belong 
to  Communes,  since  these  alone  are  of  importance  for  the  purpose  of 
this  paper  ;  but  there  are  very  many  '  alps 5  in  Switzerland  which  belong 
either  to  private  individuals  exclusively,  to  the  State  or  to  monasteries, 
or  to  ancient  corporations  .existing  within  a  Commune.  The  following 
table  (extracted  from  Professor  Anderegg5s  book,  pp.  660  and  665)  will 
show  the  exact  state  of  things  as  regards  the  4,778  'alps 5  in  Switzerland  : — 


'  Kuhstosse ' 

Capital  Value 

1.  Owned  by  Communes,  1,577  (33  p.  c.)     . 

2.  Owned    by    Communes   and   individuals 

jointly,  95  (2  p.c.) 

3.  Owned  by  Communes  and  '  corporations ' 

jointly,  478  (10  p.c.)' 

4.  Owned  solely  by  individuals,  2,580  (54 

p.c.) 

5.  Owned  by  State  or  monasteries,  48  ( 1  p.c. ) 

105,201 
6,376 

31,879 
172,146 

3,190 

26,918, 169  frcs. 
1,631,466 

8,157,330 

44,783,762 

8i,573 

If  we  refer  to  Tables  II.  and  III.,  above,  the  following  is  the  state  of 
things  with  regard  to  the  special  '  alps 5  there  mentioned.  All  are  owned 
by  Communes,  save  the  Meiringen  'alps5  (in  the  hand  of 'corporations5), 
and  the  Engstlen  Alp  (joint  ownership  of  Commune  and  individuals). 
Of  the  '  alps 5  which  belong  exclusively  to  individuals  a  well  known 
instance  is  that  of  the  Stein  Alp,  in  the  Gadmen  valley,  which  belongs 
(like  the  best  house — now  the  inn, — the  mill,  and  the  best  land)  to  the 
heiress  of  the  old  lords,  the  Von  Weissenfluh  family,  so  that  travellers 
will  there  discover  the  lady  of  the  manor  in  their  obliging  hostess. 
The  great  monastery  of  Einsiedeln  still  owns  several  'alps,5  while  the 
wide  Sand  Alp,  under  the  Todi,  belongs  half  to  some  Linththal  men  and 
half  to  the  Commune  of  Betschwanden. 


LIFE   IN   AN   ALPINE   VALLEY.  lxiii 

Even  where  there  is  no  proper  '  alp '  there  are  often  scanty  pastures 
{e.g.  on  high  slopes  of  the  Wetterhorn  and  the  Mettenberg),  and  these  may 
be  visited  by  any  one,  and  the  grass  cut  by  the  first  comer.  This  is  what 
is  called  'Wildheu'  (wild  hay),  and  stirring  tales  are  told  of  the  dangers 
and  perils  to  which  a  poor  burgher  may  be  exposed  if  he  has  no 
'  Kuhrechte'  of  his  own,  and  so  depends  entirely  on  'Wildheu.' 

(c)  What  is  the  manner  of  Life  on  an  '  Alp.' — Subject  to  the  general 
regulations  prevailing  for  the  '  alps '  in  any  particular  Swiss  valley,  the 
owners  of  any  of  these  '  alps '  {i.e.  the  members  of  the  '  Alp '  Commune) 
have  a  right  to  determine  various  minor  details.  A  day  (varying  according 
to  the  more  or  less  advanced  season)  is  fixed  by  them  on  which  (but  not 
before  which)  the  cows  may  be  driven  up  to  the  'Alps/  this  being  called 
the  'Alpfahrt.'  The  cows  may  be  separately  driven  up,  but  many  go 
together  with  the  men  who  are  to  take  charge  of  them  during  the  summer, 
and  who  have  been  previously  busy  in  transporting  to  the  lowest  huts  on 
the  'alp'  the  great  kettles,  &c,  required  for  cheese-making.  The  cows, 
after  their  long  winter  imprisonment  in  their  stables  in  the  valley,  are 
frantic  with  joy  at  regaining  their  freedom  and  liberty  of  eating  as  much 
fresh  grass  as  they  desire,  though  in  the  spring  they  have  in  many  cases 
had  a  foretaste  of  these  joys  on  the  *  Vorsassen '  belonging  to  their  several 
owners. 

The  'Alpfahrt5  takes  place  usually  in  the  first  half  of  June,  and  the 
average  time  during  which  the  cows  are  on  the  *  alp '  each  summer  may 
be  reckoned  at  about  ioo  days.  But,  of  course,  an  early  autumn  may 
drive  them  down  sooner.  By  the  end  of  September  at  latest  they  are  all 
on  the  'Vorsassen'  again,  and  there  in  some  cases  they  spend  the  winter 
(in  stables),  instead  of  being  brought  down  to  the  valley  ;  but  in  that 
case  milk  porters  descend  daily  to  the  homestead. 

On  each  'alp'  there  are  always  at  least  two  sets  of  huts,  sometimes 
three  (on  the  Scheidegg  Alp,  in  the  Grindelwald  valley,  there  are  no  less 
than  five),  from  one  to  another  of  which  the  cattle  and  their  attendants 
shift  as  the  grass  is  gradually  consumed.  A  fortnight  or  three  weeks 
are  spent  at  the  highest  huts,  and  then  a  second  halt  made  at  the  middle 
and  at  the  lowest  huts,  so  as  to  profit  by  the  new-grown  grass.  These 
successive  tiers  of  pasture  are  known  as  '  Staffel '  or  '  Lager,'  and  are 
distinguished  by  the  epithets  of  '  Unter,'  '  Mittel,'  and  'Ober.'  (The 
French  equivalents  are,  'd'en  bas,'  'du  milieu,'  and  'd'en  haut,'  while  'di 
sotto,'  'di  mezzo,'  and  'di  sopra'  are  the  Italian  terms.)  The  goats 
and  sheep  are  sent  up  to  the  very  highest  Alpine  pastures,  whither  cows 
cannot  mount ;  sometimes,  indeed,  the  sheep  and  goats  have  remote 
pastures  of  their  own,  such  as  those  near  the  Gleckstein,  on  the  Wetter- 
horn,  and  on  the  Zasenberg,  beyond  the  Eismeer,  at  Grindelwald.  (The 
latter  alp,  the  '  Gletscher  Alp,'  was  grazed  in  1898  by  small  Vallais  cows, 
who  are  said  to  have  thriven  exceedingly,  but  is  said  never  to  have 
been  used  by  cows  previously.)  The  huts  which  form  the  summer 
hamlets  on  an  'alp'  are  properly  known  as  'chalets,'  this  word  having 
only  in  recent  times  been  applied  also  to  the  dwelling-houses  in  the 
valley.  But  it  cannot  be  too  carefully  borne  in  mind  that  every  hut  on 
an  'alp'  is  not  a  'milk5  hut,  for  near  the  milk  huts  are  other  huts,  in 
which  the  cheeses  are  stored,  while   here   and  there,  especially  on  the 


lxiv  INTRODUCTION. 

lower  slopes  (and  very  often  on  the  *  Vorsassen  '),  there  are  huts  used  for 
storing  hay. 

In  a  milk  chalet  the  chief  man  is  the  'Senn'  or  '  fruitier,5  who  is  in 
charge  of  all  the  milking,  cheese-making,  &c,  arrangements.  He  is  a 
very  important  personage  in  his  way,  and  the  same  man  often  spends 
thirty  or  forty  summers  or  more  on  perhaps  the  same  '  alp.'  A  general 
superintendence  is,  however,  exercised  by  two  officials  on  each  '  alp,' 
who  are  called  'Pfander'  (the  name  occurs  already  in  1404)  at  Grindel- 
wald.  As  (we  give  the  usual  arrangements  at  Grindelwald)  several  cow- 
owners  join  together  in  employing  the  same  '  Senn,'  it  is  obvious  that 
considerable  difficulties  might  arise  as  to  the  amount  of  milk  actually 
drawn  from  each  cow,  and  consequently  the  precise  amount  of  cheese 
due  at  the  end  of  the  season  to  each  cow-owner.  Hence  twice  a  year, 
once  soon  after  the  '  Alpfahrt '  and  again  in  August,  it  is  usual  for  each 
cow-owner  (or  his  representative)  on  one  evening  to  milk  some  one  else's 
cow,  in  order  to  prevent  any  cheating  by  not  fully  milking  the  cow.  The 
amount  of  milk  given  by  each  cow  (the  owner  then  milking)  in  the 
morning  and  evening  of  the  next  day  ('  Messtag')  is  added  together,  and 
the  mean  taken  for  the  day.  This  operation  is  repeated  in  autumn,  and 
the  two  means  are  added  together,  so  as  to  arrive  at  the  definitive  mean. 
As  this  is  done  in  the  case  of  each  cow  it  is  easy  to  calculate  in  the  case 
of  the  owner  of  several  cows  how  much  cheese  is  due  to  him  at  the  end 
of  the  season.  The  'Senn'  and  his  assistants  are  allowed  sufficient 
cheese,  milk,  &c,  for  their  maintenance,  as  well  as  a  fixed  payment  per 
cow  for  their  trouble.  But  of  course  there  is  nothing  paid  by  the  cow- 
owners  for  the  use  of  the  pastures,  though  a  rent  is  due  when  the 
'  Kuhrechte '  are  taken  on  lease  ;  sometimes  a  particular  man  may 
temporarily  exchange  his  '  Kuhrechte  '  on  one  '  alp '  in  the  valley  with  a 
friend  for  others  on  another  '  alp,'  this  being  an  arrangement  for  mutual 
convenience,  each  then  taking  the  other's  place  for  that  season. 

It  is  in  these  milk  chalets  that  Alpine  travellers  have  often  sought  and 
found  hospitality,  especially  in  the  days  when  '  Club  huts '  were  still 
unknown  ;  even  now  it  is  occasionally  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the 
courtesy  of  the  '  Senn,'  which  is  very  rarely  at  fault,  though,  unfortunately, 
it  sometimes  happens  that  travellers  abuse  it.  It  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  '  Senn  '  is  not  bound  in  any  way  to  take  in  wandering 
tourists,  and  that  a  suitable  payment  should  be  made  for  the  milk,  &c,  con- 
sumed, as  well  as  for  the  rough  bed,  or  accommodation  in  a  neighbouring 
hay  barn.  If  treated  properly  the  inhabitants  of  these  milk  chalets 
will  readily  give  much  interesting  information,  for  though  rough  in  out- 
ward appearance  they  are  often  well-to-do  peasants,  who  take  to  this 
free,  healthy  life  in  summer  for  the  sheer  pleasure  of  it. 

It  does  not  enter  into  the  scope  of  the  present  paper  to  describe  the 
daily  life  of  a  \  Senn '  (beyond  warning  our  readers  that  the  best  exported 
Swiss  cheese  comes  from  the  lower-placed  'alps' — e.g.  those  in  the 
Emmenthal  and  the  Gruyere — the  rest  being  kept  for  local  consumption 
in  the  valley  where  it  is  made),  or  his  diversions,  such  as  wrestling, 
hurling  boulders,  dances,  &c,  of  which  the  two  well  known  works  by 
Berlepsch,  besides  many  others,  give  full  accounts.  But  when  possible  a 
traveller  should  try  to  visit  one  of  these  festivals  (but  ?iot  one  of  those 


LIFE   IN   AN   ALPINE   VALLEY.  lxv 

specially  got  up  for  the  edification  of  travellers),  so  as  to  realise  for  him- 
self the  rough,  but  simple  and  brave,  life  led  by  the  '  Aelpler '  on  their 
mountain  pastures.  On  the  better  class  of  Alps  the  cheese-makers  make 
a  fine  show  in  their  old-fashioned  Sunday  best  of  short  breeches,  velvet 
or  satin  jackets,  with  embroideries,  and  short  sleeves  puffed  at  the 
shoulders,  and  a  ribbon-decorated  hat.  It  is  often  hard  to  recognise  in  a 
gaily  attired  young  fellow  the  hard-working  and  roughly  clad  cheese- 
maker  who  may  have  been  seen  on  the  same  '  alp '  the  day  before. 

A  word  must  suffice  for  the  cow  songs  ('  Ranz  des  Vaches '  or  *  Kuh- 
reihen')  which  are  sung  to  the  cows,  whose  names  are  often  enumerated 
one  after  the  other,  and  for  the  falsetto  method  of  singing  called 
'Jodeln.'*  But  it  is  difficult  to  part  from  the  '  Aelpler'  without  making 
some  mention  of  the  *  Prayers  on  the  Alps,'  sung  in  the  evening  after  sun- 
down. The  text  generally  consists  of  a  thrice-repeated  'Ave  Maria,' 
followed  by  appeals  to  various  saints  to  watch  over  the  herds,  and  to 
preserve  them  from  all  harm  during  the  coming  night :  in  these  appeals 
the  name*  of  *St.  -Wendelin,  the  patron  of  herdsmen,  is  generally 
promihent.  These*  metrical  prayers  or  litanies  are  now  used  only  on  a 
few  '  alps,]  particularly  'on  (hose  in  the  Calfeisenthal,  and  on  the  Lasa, 
and  other,  *  alps,'  all  above  Ragatz,  as  well  as  .  on  the  Ober  Lavtina 
alp,  in  the  Weisstannenthal.f  Naturally  these  litanies  are  chiefly  pre- 
served in  the  Roman  Catholic  Cantons,  but  it  is  said  that  the  l  Senn ' 
who  sings  them  on  the  Brandlisberg  Alp  (Calfeisenthal)  is  a  Protestant.}: 

*  For  the  subject  'of  music  and  songs  in  the  Alps  generally  consult  two  articles  by  Herr 
Szadrowsky  in  the  ist  and  4th  vols,  of  the  Jahrbuch  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club,  and  two  essays  by 
Prof.  Ritter  and  Dr.  Pommer  in  vols.  xx.  and  xxvii.  of  the  Zeitschrift  of  the  German  and 
Austrian  Alpine  Club  :  they  contain  many  musical  illustrations. 

t  Several  texts  of  these  Prayers  (as  well  as  of  the  various  forms  of  the  '  Ranz  des  Vaches ') 
are  given  by  Prof.  Anderegg,  pp.  705-10  and  730-53,  and  in  Herr  L.  Tobler's  Schweizerische  Volks- 
lieder  (Frauenfeld,  1882).  A  litany  from  Schwyz  is  printed  in  vol.  i.  p.  240  of  the  Schweizer- 
isches  Archiv  fiir  Volkskunde,  and  several  from  the  Upper  Vallais  (sometimes  the  opening 
verses  of  St.  John's  Gospel  are  recited)  in  the  same  periodical,  vol.  ii.  pp.  295-6,  while  in  the 
Alpina  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club,  1895,  p.  136,  that  used  in  the  Melchthal  (Obwalden)  is  given. 

J  Jakrb.  d.  S.A.C.  xxiv.  p.  481  n. 


INTRODUCTION 


II.    SCIENTIFIC   NOTES. 

Art.   XX. — Geology  of  the  Alps.' 

CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

i.  Crystalline  Rocks  occurring  in  the  Alps •        .  lxvii 

2.  History  of  the  Genesis  of  the  Alps .  lxix 

3.  Constituent  Rocks  of  the  Alps lxxiii 

4.  The  Growth  and  Sculpture  of  the  Alps  ........  Ixxxy 

5.  The  Glacial  Period xciii 

6.  Geological  Literature  and  Maps    ....»•»#.  xcvi 

On  turning  his  eyes  along  the  horizon  from  any  commanding  position 
in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  the  spectator  sees  himself  surrounded  by  a  vast 
rampart  of  mountains,  open  only  on  the  eastern  side,  but  elsewhere 
enclosing  the  plain  of  Piedmont  within  a  continuous  wall.  The  im- 
pression conveyed  to  the  mind  is  that  this  great  chain,  known  under  the 
collective  name  of  the  Alps,  forms  but  a  single  system,  and  has  a 
common  origin.  The  same  impression  is  derived  from  the  examination 
of  a  general  map  of  Europe.  It  is  apparent  that  the  ranges  which 
enclose  the  plain  of  Piedmont,  and  extend  eastward  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Vienna,  constitute  but  one  chain,  whose  members  are  linked 
together  by  the  action  of  causes  common  to  them  all. 

In  this  vast  mountain  mass  there  are  some  portions  which  at  first 
sight  are  distinguishable  as  separate  groups,  the  limits  of  which  are 
more  or  less  accurately  definable,  and  it  thus  happens  that  denomina- 
tions, such  as  Maritime  Alps,  Graian  Alps,  Pennine  Alps,  &c.,  have  from 
an  early  period  been  affixed  to  certain  portions  of  the  chain.  These 
denominations,  most  of  which  were  admitted  by  the  ancient  geographers, 
arose  from  the  desire  to  recognise  certain  obvious  facts  in  the  orography 
of  the  country,  without  reference  to  its  geological  structure  ;  but  in 
several  cases  the  divisions  adopted  by  the  physical  geographer  are  the 
same  that  are  suggested  to  the  geologist  by  the  study  of  the  rocks  of 
which  the  mountains  are  composed.  Thus,  the  Maritime  Alps,  with  a 
central  granitic  ridge  limited  by  the  valleys  of  the  Stura  and  the  Tinea, 
the  Col  de  l'Argentiere,  and  the  Col  de  Tenda,  form  a  group  which  is  as 

•  The  article  in  the  former  editions  was  mainly  from  the  pen  of  the  late  Monsieur  E.  Desor,  of 
Neuchatel.  Portions  have  been  retained  in  the  present  edition,  but  the  greater  part,  more  espe- 
cially that  dealing  with  the  petrology  and  stratigraphy  of  the  Alps,  has  been  rewritten  by  Pro- 
fessor T.  G.  Bonney,  F.R.S.,  past  President  of  the  Geological  Society  and  of  the  Alpine  Club. 


GEOLOGY   OF  THE  ALPS.  lxvii 

well  defined  to  the  eye  of  the  geologist  as  to  that  of  the  common  observer. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Finsteraarhorn  group,  the  Pelvoux  group, 
the  Carnic  Alps,  and  generally  of  all  the  groups  which  have  a  well  defined 
crystalline  nucleus.  The  case  is  otherwise  when  several  crystalline 
nuclei  approach  each  other  so  nearly  that  there  is  no  depression  or 
trough  apparent  between  the  neighbouring  centres,  and  nothing  in  the 
form  of  the  surface  to  indicate  a  separation  between  them. 

These  observations  apply  to  the  Central  Pennine,  Simplon,  and  Monte 
Rosa  groups,  also  to  the  Noric,  and  in  some  measure  to  the  Raetian  Alps. 
The  physical  features  of  the  surface  do  not  here  conform  to  the  geological 
structure.  Geographers  have  necessarily  followed  the  former  as  their 
guide,  and  as  it  was  necessary  to  fix  some  limits  to  the  separate  groups, 
they  have  usually  adopted  a  valley  or  gorge,  which  affords  to  the  eye  the 
external  evidence  of  a  separation  between  adjoining  mountain  masses. 
In  this  way  the  Pennine  Alps  have  been  held  to  extend  from  the  Dora 
Baltea  to  the  Tosa,  and  the  Noric  Alps  from  the  Adige  to  Vienna. 

The  geologist  is  forced  to  look  for  some  more  positive  bases  of  classifi- 
cation than  the  mere  contour  of  the  surface.  He  endeavours,  amid  the 
irregularities  and  disturbances  of  the  strata,  to  trace  the  causes  which 
have  operated  in  upraising  the  mountains  and  have  given  them  their 
present  form,  as  the  comparative  anatomist  strives  to  trace  the  essential 
elements  of  the  organic  structure  amidst  the  varied  forms  assumed  by  the 
different  species. 

The  general  shapes  and  aspect  of  mountains  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  rocks  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  on  the  intensity  of  forces 
that  have  upraised  them.  It  is  evident  that  peaks  so  bold  in  outline  as 
the  Matterhorn  or  Monte  Viso  could  not  be  formed  of  strata  such  as  the 
molasse  or  the  flysch.  Their  shape  implies  a  great  degree  of  hardness  in 
the  rocks  from  which  they  are  fashioned.  In  the  same  manner  it  may 
be  affirmed  that  the  reservoirs  in  which  the  greater  glaciers  are  accumu- 
lated, and  the  narrow  gorges  through  which  they  now  advance — or  did 
once  flow,  between  faces  of  rock  that  still  bear  the  traces  of  their 
passage — demonstrate  a  high  degree  of  resistance  in  the  materials. 

i.  Crystalline  Rocks  occurring  in  the  Alps. 

The  following  is  a  brief  resume  of  the  more  typical  crystalline  rocks 
which  occur  in  the  Alps. 

Granite  is  a  crystalline  granular  rock,  composed  essentially  of  quartz, 
felspar  (mostly  orthoclase),  and  mica  ;  hornblende  is  a  not  infrequent 
accessory. 

Syenite  is  a  similar  rock,  composed  essentially  of  felspar  (mostly  ortho- 
clase) and  hornblende  ;  the  latter  mineral  may  be  more  or  less  replaced 
by  mica  (biotite)  or  augite  ;  the  rock  is  then  called  a  mica- syenite,  or 
augite-syenite. 

Diorite  differs  from  syenite  in  that  the  felspar  is  a  plagioclase. 

Tonalite  is  a  variety  of  Diorite,  which  contains  quartz  as  an  essential 
constituent.  Biotite  also  occurs.  The  Adamello  consists  of  this  rock, 
the  name  being  taken  from  the  Tonale  Pass. 

Felstone  is  the  name  given  to  a  large  group  of  rocks,  having  a  rather 

d2 


lxviii  INTRODUCTION. 

compact  felspathic  matrix,  in  which  not  seldom  distinct  crystals  of  felspar 
(orthoclase  or  plagioclase),  quartz,  hornblende,  augite,  mica,  &c,  are 
scattered  about,  and  are  sometimes  very  conspicuous.  These  varieties 
are  called  by  many  authors  porphyry.  Where  the  felspar  is  orthoclase 
the  rock  is  termed  felspar-porphyry  or  felsite  ;  if  quartz  be  also  present, 
quartz-porphyry  or  quartz- felsite  ;  if  the  felspar  be  plagioclase  the  rock  is 
called  either  porphyrite  or  quartz-porphyrite,  according  as  quartz  be 
absent  or  present.  Rocks  consisting  essentially  of  a  species  of  plagio- 
clase felspar  (generally  less  rich  in  silica  than  in  the  cases  just  mentioned), 
augite,  iron  oxide,  and  (often)  olivine,  if  rather  coarsely  crystalline  are 
called  dolerite  ;  if  finely  crystalline  or  compact,  basalt.  In  varieties  of 
the  latter  rock  augite  occurs  in  conspicuous  crystals,  and  the  rock  has 
been  named  by  some  augite- porphyry.  When  the  rock  is  very  coarse 
and  the  augite  commonly  is  the  variety  called  diallage,  the  rock  is  termed 
gabbro.  Some  authors  use  the  word  euphotide  as  an  equivalent,  others 
apply  this  term  to  gabbro  in  which  certain  mineral  changes  have  occurred, 
the  felspar  being  replaced  by  a  mineral  akin  to  saussurite,  and  the  diallage 
by  a  green  hornblende  (often  the  kind  called  smaragdite). 

Melaphyre  is  only  a  name  given  to  rather  old  basalts.  Diabase  is 
applied  to  members  of  the  same  group  which  have  undergone  a  greater 
amount  of  secondary  change  ;  these,  with  the  finer-grained  diorites, 
which  can  hardly  be  distinguished  one  from  another  without  microscopic 
examination,  are  often  grouped  together  for  descriptive  purposes  under 
the  name  Greenstone. 

Serpentine  results  from  the  alteration  of  a  group  of  rocks  which  consist 
mainly  of  olivine  ;  these  in  their  unaltered  condition  are  called  peridotites. 
Serpentine  commonly  also  contains  a  variety  of  enstatite,  which  occurs  in 
flaky  crystals  with  a  lustre  something  like  that  of  brass.  The  rock  is 
rather  easily  scratched  with  a  knife,  has  a  slightly  F  soapy '  feeling,  and 
is  generally,  in  the  Alps,  of  a  dark  colour,  commonly  dark-green.  Some 
varieties,  in  chemical  composition,  approach  rather  nearer  to  the  basalts  ; 
these  are  generally  harder  than  the  rest.  The  mineral  serpentine  (for 
the  rock  and  its  chief  constituent  bear  the  same  name)  may  be  produced 
from  ferro-magnesian  minerals  other  than  olivine,  but  the  rock  of  which 
the  well  known  serpentine  near  the  Lizard,  in  Cornwall,  is  a  good  type 
was  originally  a  peridotite.  The  name,  however,  has  been  used  by 
earlier  writers  with  considerable  laxity,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  much 
confusion. 

Of  the  rocks  more  or  less  foliated,  Gneiss  has  practically  the  same 
composition  as  granite.  Protogine  is  only  a  granite  modified  by  pressure. 
It  was  formerly  asserted  to  contain  talc  instead  of  mica  ;  this,  however,  is 
a  mistake  ;  the  mineral  so  named  is  only  a  somewhat  altered  biotite. 
Hornblende-schist  is,  in  composition,  nearly  identical  with  a  diorite,  and 
in  many  cases  is  only  a  modified  form  of  that  rock  or  of  a  dolerite. 
Chlorite- schist^  Talc-schist,  Mica-schist,  are  foliated  rocks  in  which  the 
minerals  named  are  dominant.  Potstone  is,  as  a  rule,  a  variety  of  the 
first  rock  without  foliation.  Mica-schist  commonly  also  contains  a  fair 
proportion  of  quartz,  and  sometimes  of  calcite,  and  thus  graduates,  on 
the  one  hand,  into  quartz-schist,  a.  foliated  rock  consisting  mainly  of 
quartz,  and,  on  the  other,  into  calc-schist,  which  has  the  same  structure, 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE  ALPS.  lxix 

and  consists  mainly  of  calcite.  If  the  rock  is  without  foliation,  and  is 
practically  pure  calcite,  it  is  called  marble,  the  difference  between  this 
and  limestone  being  that  all  the  constituents  of  the  former  have  crys- 
tallised in  situ.  Dolomite  is  a  mineral  composed  of  carbonate  of  both 
lime  and  magnesia.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  rock  which  mainly 
consists  of  this  mineral.  This  sometimes  is  thoroughly  crystalline,  as  in 
the  Binnenthal ;  sometimes  it  is  imperfectly  crystalline,  like  many  lime- 
stones, as  in  the  case  of  the  '  Dolomites  '  of  South  Tyrol. 

2.  History  of  the  Genesis  of  the  Alps. 

In  the  study  of  a  mountain  chain  two  sets  of  questions  are  raised,  the 
one  relating  to  its  growth  and  development,  the  other  to  the  history  of  its 
constituent  rocks.  These  cannot  be  wholly  separated,  because  the  effects 
of  one  may  be  recorded  in  the  other,  but  nothing  is  gained,  and  sometimes 
much  is  lost,  by  failing  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  they  are  generally 
distinct.  Both  have  led  to  much  controversy,  which  in  neither  case  can 
be  regarded  as  closed,  though  one  may  venture  to  predict  what  will  be  the 
leading  outlines  of  the  ultimate  conclusions. 

The  Alpine  chain,  as  it  now  exists,  is  the  product  of  a  series  of  move- 
ments which,  in  the  main,  occurred  in  the  Tertiary  era.  Mountains, 
indeed,  there  were  at  an  epoch,  geologically  speaking,  much  earlier,  which, 
however,  in  all  probability  differed  widely  as  to  both  trend  and  outline 
from  the  present  Alps.  These  will  presently  be  mentioned,  but  by  the 
time  (approximately)  when  the  Bagshot  sands  of  England  were  deposited 
they  had  wholly,  or  almost  wholly,  disappeared.  The  end  of  a  long  period 
of  subsidence  was  now  approaching.  Here  and  there,  it  is  true,  this 
already  had  been  locally  interrupted,  but,  as  yet,  neither  the  Alps  nor  any 
other  mountain  chain  in  connection  with  them  had  been  developed. 
About  the  end,  however,  of  the  Eocene  period  long  folds  began  to  form 
in  the  crust  of  the  earth  on  the  site  of  the  Alps.  The  cause  of  these 
movements  is  still  a  subject  of  dispute.  The  effect,  however,  seems  to  be 
beyond  question ;  the  strata  forming  this  crust,  to  a  depth  below  what  can 
now  be  examined,  were  bent  and  folded  into  a  series  of  huge  parallel 
wrinkles.  These  movements,  apparently,  gave  rise  not  only  to  the 
Western,  Central,  and  Eastern  Alps,  but  also  to  the  Appennines  on  the 
one  side  and  the  Julian  and  Dinaric  Alps  on  the  other.  The  outline  of 
the  Italian  peninsula,  as  every  child  knows,  resembles  a  boot,  but  a 
similar  form,  though  in  the  reverse  position,  is  enclosed  by  these  moun- 
tains from  the  south  end  of  the  Adriatic  northward.  Whether  the 
development  of  a  series  of  associate  ranges  on  a  plan  so  complicated  was 
the  result  of  a  single  group  of  movements,  or  of  a  succession  of  move- 
ments, is  a  point  on  which  different  opinions  are  entertained,  to  which 
reference  will  later  be  made  ;  but  at  any  rate  it  must  be  admitted  that  any 
attempt  to  break  up  the  Alps  into  two  or  more  distinct  mountain  masses 
involves  very  serious  difficulties.  We  may  be  content  in  these  pages  to 
avoid  abstruse  theoretical  questions,  and  to  speak  of  the  Alpine  chain  as 
a  whole.  . 

The  earth's  crust,  as  has  been  said,  began  to  be  folded,  and  the 
result  of  the  process  was  to  raise  it  above  the  sea  in  long  strips  or 


Ixx  INTRODUCTION. 

shoals.  Then  by  degrees  the  banks  became  hills,  and  the  hills  became 
mountains.  All  this  time  the  retiring  waves  were  beating  upon  the 
coast  line  ;  the  rain,  as  now,  fell  on  the  rising  ground,  and  was  discharged 
seawards  in  streams  and  torrents  ;  the  rocks  were  expanded  by  heat  and 
contracted  by  cold  ;  they  cracked,  and  they  were  shattered  by  the  strains. 
In  a  word,  no  sooner  did  the  land  appear  than  the  processes  of  denu- 
dation began.  The  detritus,  hurried  down  from  the  highlands,  was 
deposited  as  beds  of  sand  and  conglomerate  on  either  side  of  the  growing 
mountain  chain.  Then  after  a  long  interval  of  time,  an  epoch  of  com- 
parative quiescence  during  which  this  process  of  mountain  sculpture  and 
marginal  deposit  continued,  not  only  the  Alps  themselves  but  also  the 
latter  area  were  subjected  to  renewed  disturbances  like  the  former ; 
but  these  appear  to  have  acted  with  greatest  intensity  in  the  region  of  the 
Central  Alps,  roughly  speaking,  and  to  have  produced  more  effect  on 
the  northern  than  on  the  southern  side  of  the  chain.  By  them  the  folds 
already  existing  were  intensified  and  complicated,  the  beds  of  sandstone 
(molasse)  and  puddingstone  (nagelfluh)  were  uptilted  and  uplifted,  till 
in  some  cases,  as  in  the  Rigi  and  the  Speer,  they  rise  about  6,000  feet 
above  the  sea  level. 

Without  entering  into  details,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  the  crust  thus 
folded  consisted  of  a  thick  mass  of  sedimentary  rocks — limestones, 
shales,  and  sandstones,  the  majority  being  of  Secondary  or  early  Tertiary 
age.  This  rested  upon  a  floor  of  crystalline  rocks — granites,  gneisses, 
and  schists  :  these,  whatever  may  have  been  their  origin,  are  much 
more  ancient.  When  the  crust  was  bent  into  folds  the  latter  rocks, 
being  the  harder,  may  have  been  occasionally  forced  through  the  former  ; 
their  masses,  at  any  rate,  have  better  resisted  denudation,  so  that 
they,  or  the  remnants  of  them,  project  in  bold  peaks  and  lofty  ridges, 
while  the  softer  sedimentaries  sometimes  form  valley-like  troughs 
between  them.  The  rock  masses  which  now  compose  the  Alps  were 
greatly  compressed  during  this  process  of  crumpling  :  shales  were 
thus  converted  into  slates  ;  limestones  and  sandstones  not  seldom 
assumed  a  rude  cleavage.  In  certain  cases  secondary  minerals  were 
developed,  though  generally  only  on  a  microscopic  scale,  so  that  the 
new  divisional  surfaces  assume  a  peculiar  sheen,  and  the  slate,  for 
instance,  becomes  a  phyllite.  But,  besides  the  sedimentaries,  the 
crystalline  rocks  themselves  were  affected,  and  in  them  also  similar 
structures  were  developed.  Schists  assumed,  so  to  say,  a  new  schis- 
tosity  ;  foliated  rocks  a  new  foliation,  which  rendered  them  fissile  in 
directions  quite  different  from  those  along  which  they  could  formerly  be 
split.  In  the  case  of  the  more  massive  rocks,  serpentines  sometimes 
are  slaty  :  even  granites  have  yielded  to  the  pressures,  have  assumed  a 
foliated  structure,  and  have  been  converted  into  gneiss  ;  for  in  the 
crystalline  rocks  this  mechanical  change  has  been  followed  by  a  more 
marked  mineral  change  than  in  the  sedimentaries,  and  the  powdered 
mineral  constituents,  when  acted  upon  by  water,  have  entered  into  new 
combinations :  thus  mica,  black  and  white,  secondary  hornblende, 
quartz,  and  other  minerals  can  be  found,  which  either  have  been 
developed  along  the  divisional  planes,  produced  by  crushing,  or  at  least 
have  had  their   direction   of  growth  affected  by  these.     To   take,  for 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxi 

example,  the  case  of  granite  :  from  the  powder  of  the  felspar,  under  the 
action  of  water,  white  mica  and  free  quartz  have  been  produced.  Of  these 
the  former  is  developed  upon  the  divisional  surfaces,  which  are,  so  to 
say,  veneered,  or  varnished,  with  the  new  mineral ;  the  rock  assumes  a 
foliation,  and  answers  to  the  definition  of  a  gneiss.  When  crushing  has 
been  carried  still  further,  the  felspar  may  be  practically  destroyed  and  a 
kind  of  mica-schist  produced.  It  is  then  strictly  true  that,  as  the  older 
school  of  geologists  affirmed,  a  granite  may  be  found  passing  into  a 
gneiss,  or  a  gneiss  into  a  mica-schist ;  only,  instead  of  a  granite  repre- 
senting, as  they  supposed,  the  ultimate  result  of  metamorphism  in 
materials  which,  in  a  less  advanced  stage  of  alteration,  had  made  a 
mica-schist,  and,  in  a  greater,  a  gneiss,  exactly  the  reverse  had 
happened,  for  the  mica-schist  and  the  gneiss  have  been,  as  it  were, 
manufactured  from  the  granite,  and  represent  stages  of  a  certain  kind  of 
metamorphism,  the  mica-schist  answering  to  the  most  extreme  one. 
Foliation,  therefore,  may  be  a  result  of  pressure,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
proved,  and  probably  is  not  true,  that  all  foliation  is  due  to  the  action  of 
pressure,  as  described  above,  or,  in  other  words,  to  a  process  which  is 
later  in  date  than  the  solidification  of  the  rock.  There  are  gneisses,  for 
instance,  in  which  a  mineral  banding  is  conspicuous  ;  mica,  or  some 
such  constituent  dominating  in  occasional  layers,  which  sometimes 
exceed  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  structure,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
cannot  be  shown  to  be  the  result  of  pressure  subsequent  to  solidification. 
In  some  cases  it  may  be  the  record  of  an  original  stratification,  but  in 
not  a  few  it  is  probably  produced  by  differentiation  in  the  constituents  of 
the  mass,  previous  to  its  complete  solidification,  and  is  analogous  to  the 
'  flow  structure,'  which  is  exhibited  by  certain  lavas,  and  is  common  in 
artificial  slags.  But  that  many  schists,  possibly  also  some  gneisses, 
were  originally  sediments,  clayey,  sandy,  or  calcareous,  cannot  be 
doubted  ;  the  first  and  second  being  the  detritus  of  older  rocks,  while 
the  third  sometimes  may  have  been  formed  by  the  accumulation  of 
organisms  ;  the  materials  of  these,  under  the  combined  action  of  heat, 
pressure,  and  water,  have  entered  into  crystalline  combination  ;  producing 
new  minerals,  and,  in  most  cases,  obliterating  the  records  of  their 
previous  history.  It  is  impossible,  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  to 
separate  these  various  classes  of  so  called  metamorphic  rocks  by  hard 
and  fast  lines,  or  to  pronounce,  in  every  case,  upon  the  origin  of  a  speci- 
men, but  we  may  assert  with  confidence  that  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the 
Alps  are  partly  igneous,  partly  sedimentary,  in  their  origin,  and  that 
both  groups  have  been  modified  by  pressure,  followed  by  mineral 
change  ;  these  modifications,  in  the  case  of  the  former  group,  being 
subsequent  to  the  assumption  of  a  crystalline  structure. 

In  the  Alps,  at  any  rate,  when  due  allowance  is  made  for  the  result  of 
subsequent  pressure,  the  crystalline  rocks  which  were  sedimentary  in 
origin  commonly  overlie  those  for  which  an  igneous  origin  seems  more 
probable.  But  at  this  stage  a  distinction  must  be  made,  for  we  find 
here,  as  in  other  mountain  chains,  two  kinds  of  igneous  rocks,  the 
one  underlying,  and  apparently  older  than,  the  altered  sedimentaries, 
the  other  clearly  later  in  date  than  the  rocks  with  which  they  are 
associated,  whatever  these   may  be  :  in  other  words,  igneous  rocks  of 


lxxii  INTRODUCTION. 

the  latter  kind  are  obviously  intrusive,  while  those  of  the  former,  though 
igneous  in  origin,  may  have  been  covered  up  by  the  materials  which 
have  since  become  crystalline.  The  intrusive  rocks,  of  course,  even 
if  mainly  lower  in  position  than  another  group  of  rocks,  send  off  veins 
into  it,  or  occasionally  break  through  it.  Thus,  in  the  Alps,  there  are 
certain  gneissoid  granites,  which  are  intrusive  and  comparatively  late 
in  date  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  porphyritic  gneissoid  granite  of  the 
Lukmanier  Pass,  the  so  called  Fibbia  gneiss  at  the  top  of  the  St. 
Gotthard  Pass,  and  the  Protogine  of  Mont  Blanc — indeed,  so  far  as  the 
writer  has  observed,  all  the  porphyritic  (gneissoid)  granites.  Other 
granites,  like  the  'core'  of  the  Central  Oberland,  Dauphine,  and  the 
Central  Tyrol,  may  be  also  intrusive,  but  the  evidence,  so  far  as  it  goes, 
suggests  that  they  must  be  referred  to  a  very  remote  period.  In  the  Alps, 
then,  the  amount  of  granite  is  much  greater  than  was  originally  sup- 
posed ;  only  its  appearance  is  somewhat  illusory,  as  it  has  been  modified 
by  pressure,  has  assumed  a  foliated  structure,  and  is  now  petro- 
graphically  a  gneiss.  The  same  may  be  said  of  many  other  schistose 
rocks  in  the  Alps.  Some  of  the  mica-schists  (though  by  no  means 
all)  are  also  modified  igneous  rocks,  allied  to  granite  ;  the  serpentinous 
schists  are  often  only  serpentine  or  rocks  closely  allied  to  it,  which 
have  been  rendered  fissile  by  pressure  ;  while  very  many  of  the  horn- 
blende schists  certainly  are  modified  dolerites,  or  basalts  ;  some  of  the 
chlorite  schists  also  may  have  had  a  like  origin. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  the  age  of  the  above  named  intrusive 
rocks.  As  will  be  presently  mentioned,  there  is  evidence  of  volcanic 
activity  in  the  Vicentine  district  in  Tertiary  times,  and  of  the  same,  on  a 
much  grander  scale,  on  the  Southern  side  of  the  Alps,  in  Permian  or 
early  Secondary  times.  But  in  the  Alps,  as  a  rule,  intrusive  igneous 
rocks  are  rare  among  the  Secondary  and  Tertiary  sedimentary 
deposits,  and  the  above  named  gneissoid  granites,  foliated  diorites 
(hornblende  schists),  and  similar  pressure-modified  rocks  are  associated 
with  other  crystalline  schists  ;  hence  they  are  later  than  these,  and  earlier 
than  the  great  earth  movements  which  upraised  the  present  chain,  but, 
as  nothing  more  can  be  affirmed,  that  leaves  a  very  wide  margin  of 
time.  There  are,  however,  some  granites  and  allied  rocks,  thus 
situated,  which  still  retain  their  normal  aspects,  and  appear,  as  a  rule, 
to  have  escaped  uncrushed  ;  such  are  the  granite  of  Biella,  extending 
N.E.  towards  Varallo,  and  that  of  Baveno,  Mont'  Orfano,  and  the 
vicinity.  The  red  granite  of  the  second  locality  and  the  grey  granite  of 
the  third  are  extensively  worked.  To  these  may  be  added  the  granite  of 
the  Cima  d'Asta,  with  some  smaller  masses  in  various  localities,  and  the 
Tonalite  or  quartz-diorite  of  the  Adamello.  The  '  protogine  '  of  the 
Meije  and  other  neighbouring  peaks  of  the  Central  Dauphine  Alps  is 
also  a  granite,  which  is  but  little  modified  ;  and  the  Bernina  group 
affords  examples  of  granitic  rocks,  indubitably  igneous,  which  generally 
have  escaped  with  but  slight  damage. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxiii 


3.  Constituent  Rocks  of  the  Alps. 

We  pass  on  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  rock  masses  which  constitute 
the  present  Alpine  chain,  leaving  for  a  while  the  details  of  its  growth  and 
development. 

The  Foundation  Stones. — These,  as  stated  above,  are  crystalline  rocks  ; 
if  we  put  aside  those  obviously  of  igneous  origin,  they  may  be  roughly 
grouped  under  three  heads  : — 

(1)  Rocks  rather  Granitoid  in  Aspect,  which  appear,  as  a  rule,  to  occupy 
the  lowest  position,  and  to  constitute  generally  the  '  core '  of  a  range. 
Such  are  the  granitoid  gneisses  common  in  the  '  Laurentian '  region  of 
Canada,,  or  beneath  the  Torridon  sandstone  in  the  N.W.  of  Scotland. 
Rocks  of  this  character  occur,  as  mentioned  above,  in  various  districts  of 
the  Alps. 

(2)  Rocks  more  Variable  in  Character  and  often  more  Stratified  in 
Aspect. — Among  these  rather  thick  masses  of  mica-schists  and  various 
gneisses,  often  markedly  banded,  are  common,  in  which  garnets,  horn- 
blende, and  various  accessory  minerals  frequently  occur  ;  the  gneisses 
often  have  a  rather  saccharoidal  aspect,  and  are  somewhat  friable  when 
hammered.  These  are  well  developed  on  the  N.  and  S.  sides  of  the 
St.  Gotthard  Pass,  e.g.  about  the  Val  Tremola.  This  group  is  not  in- 
frequently poorly  developed,  and  is  sometimes  missing  :  it  must  be 
regarded  as  of  only  provisional  value,  and  its  origin  an  open  question  ; 
probably  some  of  its  members  will  be  found  ultimately  to  have  been 
sedimentary,  others  igneous. 

(3)  Rocks  mainly  of  Sedimentary  Origin. — This  group  consists  chiefly 
of  micaceous  schists,  varying  from  dark  or  lead-coloured,  often  calcareous, 
and  sometimes  passing  into  pure  crystalline  limestones  or  dolomites, 
with  occasional  quartz-schists,  brown  and  white,  besides  actinolitir, 
talcose,  and  chloritic  schists.  Many  of  the  last  named  schists  may  be 
modified  igneous  rocks ;  sometimes  they  may  have  been  originally  volcanic 
tuffs.  The  dark  micaceous  schists  not  seldom  contain  garnets  of  con- 
siderable size  ;  smaller  garnets  of  lighter  colour,  cyanite,  and  stauro- 
lite  are  not  uncommon  minerals.  This  group  has  a  great  development. 
It  may  be  traced  along  the  chain  practically  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
It  appears  sometimes  to  succeed  the  second  group  by  a  gradual  transition  ; 
sometimes  its  rests,  with  a  rathermarked  indication  of  unconformity,  on 
the  rocks  of  the  first  group.  The  mass  at  a  distance  has  a  thoroughly 
stratified  aspect,  as  may  be  seen,  for  instance,  on  the  S.  side  of  tin  Rhone 
valley  from  above  Brieg  to  Obergestelen.  In  its  members  the  more 
quartzose  and  more  micaceous  layers  are  often  interstratined,  precisely 
as  are  the  sandy  and  clayey  bands  in  an  ordinary  sedimentary  rock. 
The  geological  age  of  the  group  is,  however,  a  more  difficult  question 
than  that  of  its  origin,  and  has  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute.  In 
the  Cottian  Alps  these  rocks  have  been  called  4  schistes  lust  ices,'  in  the 
more  E.  part  of  Switzerland  '  Bundner  Schiefer,'  and*  in  both  they  have 
been  regarded  as  altered  rocks  of  Secondary  age— in  the  former  cas. 

-  mainly  Triassic,  in  the  latter  as  Triassic  or  Jurassic,  or  both.     In  die 
Lepontine  Alps  also  the  schists,  which  include  the  beds  bearing  black 


Ixxiv  INTRODUCTION. 

garnets,  have  been  referred  to  the  Jurassic  age.  The  controversy  on  the 
subject,  which  has  attracted  considerable  attention,  still  continues.  The 
writer,  who  has  taken  some  part  in  it,  has  a  very  distinct  opinion  that  in 
some  cases  the  disputants  have  been  regarding  different  sides  of  the 
shield,  and  that  the  terms  *  schistes  lustrees  5  and  '  Biindner  Schiefer ' 
will  be  found  to  cover  rocks  of  more  than  one  geological  age,  some  being 
crystalline  schists  of  very  great  antiquity,  others  only  comparatively  un- 
altered rocks  of  Primary  (probably  Carboniferous)  and  of  Secondary  age. 
He  is,  however,  convinced,  after  careful  examination,  that  the  group  of 
schists  in  which  the  black  garnet  bands  of  the  Lepontine  Alps  occur 
had  already  become  schists  in  Triassic  times,  for  some  members  of  this 
group  are  represented  by  fragments  in  the  basement  beds  of  the  Trias. 
The  statement  also  that  garnets  and  staurolites  are  associated  with 
belemnites  *  in  rocks  of  Jurassic  age  is  incorrect,  for  the  'knoten'  and 
c  prismen '  of  the  schistose  Jurassic  rocks  of  Scopi,  and  of  the  region 
about  the  Nufenen  Pass,  are  neither  garnets  nor  staurolites,  but,  as  can 
be  proved  by  a  microscopic  examination,  totally  different  minerals,  the 
occurrence  of  which  proves  little  with  regard  to  the  history  of  the  rock. 
He  ventures,  therefore,  to  affirm  that  none  of  the  crystalline  schists  in 
the  Alps  have  been  proved  to  be  the  equivalents  of  either  Primary  or 
Secondary  rocks,  and  many  of  them  have  been  demonstrated  to  be 
much  more  ancient  than  any  strata  to  which  a  date  can  be  assigned. 
It  is  accordingly  his  opinion  that  all  the  true  crystalline  schists  of  the 
Alps  are  older  than  the  Cambrian  rocks,  and  so  belong  to  the  i  dawn 
period'  of  geological  history,  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  great  series, 
now  termed  Archaean,  and  commonly  not  to  the  very  latest  epoch  of  this 
era.f 

If  then  we  regard  these  upper  schists  of  the  Alpine  chain  as  Archaean, 
and  pass  on  to  the  rocks  which,  as  a  rule,  have  undergone  mineral 
change  only  on  a  minute  scale,  and  in  which  fossils  can  be  still  dis- 
tinguished, more  or  less  readily,  we  find  that,  as  yet,  Cambrian  rocks 
have  not  been  identified  in  the  Alps,  and  even  those  which  have  been 
assigned  to  earlier  Palaeozoic  ages  are  restricted  to  a  comparatively 
limited  district. 

Silurian  and  Devonian. — Rocks  which  can  be  thus  identified  (by  the 
presence  of  fossils,  or  by  conformity  with  beds  containing  them)  occur 
only  in  the  extreme  E.  and  N.E.  of  the  Alpine  chain,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  Carnic  Alps  (forming  a  long  strip  south  of  the  Upper  Gailthal,  where 
Upper  Silurian,  and  a  fairly  complete  section  of  the  Devonian  system, 
have  been  identified),  in  the  Karawankas,  and  on  either  side  of  the  Mur 
for  some  considerable  distance  to  the  N.  of  Graz,  where  Devonian  fossils 
occur,  and,  in  the  lower  part,  some  contemporaneous  igneous  rocks. 
Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian  rocks  have  also  been  identified  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Central  range  in  a  long  strip,  which  extends  from  E.  of 
Radstadt  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Schwaz,  in  the  Innthal.  The  Devonian 
system,  as  a  rule,  steems  to  be  well  represented  ;  the  Silurian  fossils  more 

•  Quart.  Journ.  Geo/.  Soc.  1890,  p.  236. 

t  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Archaean  is  no  more  marked  off  by  a  hard  and  fast  univer- 
sal line  from  the  Palaeozoic  (Primary)  than  this  is  from  the  Secondary,  or  the  latter  from  the 
Tertiary. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxr 

often  indicate  the  upper  part  of  the  system,  though  probably  the  whole  of 
that,  as  distinguished  from  the  Ordovician  (Lower  Silurian  of  many 
geologists),  is  represented  in  some  places.  How  far  the  latter  can  be 
identified  seems  to  be  more  questionable.  The  occurrence  of  either 
Silurian  or  Devonian  rocks  in  the  Central  or  Western  Alps  at  present  is 
not  established. 

Carboniferous. — Strata  belonging  to  this  system  are  more  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  Alps,  though  they  generally  occur  in  rather  restricted 
areas,  and  often  form  comparatively  narrow  strips,  enfolded  among 
crystalline  rocks  of  much  greater  antiquity.  Commonly  they  are  obvi- 
ously detrital  in  origin — conglomerates,  sandstones  and  shales.  The  first 
are  frequently  full  of  fragments  of  the  crystalline  rocks  ;  when  these  are 
small  and  the  rock  is  a  kind  of  grit,  made  of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica, 
which  has  been  modified  by  subsequent  pressure,  it  is  locally  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  a  crushed  crystalline  rock — gneiss  or  schist.  The  sandy 
rocks  are  sometimes,  as  to  the  N.  of  Briangon,  of  considerable  thickness. 
But  the  clayey  rocks  are  more  common,  and  usually  have  been  converted 
into  slates  by  subsequent  pressure.  These  very  often  are  black  from  car- 
bonaceous materials,  and  thin  beds  of  anthracite  occur,  which  have  been 
worked  at  different  points,  as  at  Chandolin,  near  Sion,  Les  Coupeaux,  near 
Chamonix,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Arc,  I  sere,  and  upper  Romanche. 
Fossil  plants  are  found  abundantly  in  certain  localities,  such  as  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Diosaz,  N.  of  the  BreVent.  Limestones  are  rare  ;  they 
occur,  however  (containing  Fusulina  and  marine  fossils),  at  the  Ofen 
Alp,  in  the  Gailthal  (where  they  belong  to  the  upper  part  of  the  system), 
and  in  the  Stang  Alp  district,  at  the  junction  of  the  frontiers  of  Salzburg, 
Styria,  and  Carinthia  (where,  however,  no  fossils  have  been  found  in  the 
limestone,  which  is  assigned  to  the  lower  part  of  the  system). 

Permian. — During  the  last  thirty  years  this  system  in  the  Alps  has 
been  much  augmented  in  extent,  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  Trias.  It 
is,  however,  only  developed  on  a  large  scale  in  the  Eastern  Alps.  In  the 
Central  and  Western  Alps  it  is  often  missing,  or  is  merely  represented 
by  a  grit,  conglomerate,  or  sandstone,  generally  of  no  great  thickness, 
which  forms  a  base  to  the  Secondary  rocks,  is  unconformable  with  and 
composed  of  the  ruins  of  the  underlying  crystalline  rocks,  and  is  often 
called  Verrucano.  So  far  as  the  writer  knows,  the  rock  does  not  contain 
fossils,  and,  as  it  is  sometimes  followed  directly  by  Jurassic  rocks,  may 
represent  more  than  one  geological  period.  Still  some  of  the  Verrucano 
in  all  probability  is  rightly  referred  to  the  Permian.  To  this  age  also 
the  red  *  porphyry '  of  the  Windgalle  is  assigned  by  some  geologists. 
In  the  Eastern  Alps,  however,  more  especially  on  the  S.  side,  a  most 
interesting  series  of  rocks  (as  explained  below)  is  now  referred  to  the 
Permian  period.  In  the  Karawankas  district  some  marine  deposits, 
with  Fusulina,  have  been  observed  ;  these  are  followed  by  sandstone,  and 
this  again  by  calcareous  beds,  containing  Bellerophon  and  other  marine 
fossils.  The  upper  and  lower  deposits  are  rather  limited  in  area,  but  the 
sandstone  extends,  with  some  interruption,  in  a  long  strip  from  the  valley 
of  the  Save,  S.E.  of  Villach,  to  near  the  E.  bank  of  the  Eisack. 
From  a  well  known  locality  on  the  W.  side  of  the  district  it  receives  the 
name  of  'Grodner'  sandstone,  which  occasionally  much  resembles  the 


lxxvi  INTRODUCTION. 

red  Triassic  sandstone  of  England  and  parts  of  Germany.  Beneath  this, 
over  a  large  area,  on  both  sides  of  the  Eisack,  near  Bozen,  is  a  great 
eruptive  series,  consisting  mainly  of  quartziferous  felstones,  commonly 
called  quartz-porphyries,  with  some  associated  tuffs  ;  these  prove  the 
group  to  be  eruptive,  and  to  indicate  an  ancient  volcanic  district. 
Where  if  is  most  completely  developed,  two  thick  masses  of  quartz- 
porphyries,  separated  by  tuffs,  occur,  and  beneath  the  lower  are  more 
tuffs  and  a  basement  conglomerate.  All  this  district  has  been  made 
classic  ground  by  the  labours  of  Von  Richthofen,  Mojsisovics,  and  many 
other  geologists  of  the  present  and  previous  generations.  The  area  more 
or  less  covered  by  the  great  lava-flows  measures  hardly  less  than  forty 
miles  from  N.  to  S.,  and  about  the  same  from  E.  to  W.  The  glen  of  the 
Kuntersweg,  between  Klausen  and  Bozen,  cuts  through  these  porphyries, 
and  is  indebted  to  them  for  much  of  the  beauty  of  its  scenery.  Indica- 
tions of  volcanic  outbreaks,  presumably  of  the  same  age,  are  found  in 
more  than  one  locality  further  W.,  as  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  of  Lugano, 
where  a  dark  porphyry,  that  has  flowed  over  the  denuded  edges  of 
crystalline  schists,  is  overlain  by  a  red  porphyry,  and  on  this  (as  may  be 
seen  by  the  lake-side  at  the  foot  of  Monte  Salvatore)  rest  Triassic  strata. 
Smaller  masses  of  porphyry  also  occur  about  the  S.  end  of  the  Lago 
Maggiore,  and  of  the  lake  of  Orta,  and  for  some  distance  further  W. 
Similar  rocks,  probably  of  the  same  geological  age,  occur  about  Raibl, 
and  at  other  places  in  Carinthia. 

Trias  {including  Rhcetic). — If  we  exclude  from  this  group  the  '  schistes 
lustrees '  of  the  Cottian  x\lps,  and  the  '  Bundner  Schiefer '  of  the  Grisons 
and  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  we  find  that,  over  a  considerable 
region  of  the  Alps,  Triassic  rocks  are  either  missing  or  very  poorly 
developed.  On  the  margin  of  the  crystalline  masses  on  the  western  side 
of  the  main  watershed,  from  that  of  the  Pelvoux  to  Mont  Blanc,  Jurassic 
deposits  appear  to  rest  directly  upon  the  crystalline  rocks,  so  that  these 
regions,  in  all  probability,  were  above  water  in  Triassic  times.  Indeed, 
in  all  parts  of  the  Pennine,  the  Lepontine,  and  the  Central  Alps  on  either 
side  of  the  Reuss,  Triassic  strata,  if  represented,  are  commonly  limited 
in  thickness,  and  abnormal  in  character.  Here  the  most  usual  type  is 
rather  a  soft  porous  limestone  or  dolomite,  of  a  yellowish  colour,  often 
called  '  Rauchwacke  \  or  \  Rauwacke,5  with  which  beds  of  gypsum  are 
sometimes  associated  ;  occasionally  it  passes  into  a  breccia,  containing 
fragments  of  the  underlying  crystalline  rocks.  In  the  heart  of  the 
Pennine  and  Lepontine  Alps  this  deposit  is  found  occasionally,  appearing 
and  disappearing  in  a  curious  '  patchy  '  manner.  Here,  as  on  the  flank 
of  the  Hohthaligrat,  a  little  strip  is  '  nipped  in '  among  crystalline  masses, 
far  away  from  any  rocks  of  Secondary  age  ;  there,  as  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Nufenenstock,  the  Jurassic  beds  are,  in  one  place,  separated 
by  a  few  feet  of  Rauchwacke'  from  the  crystalline  schists  ;  in  another, 
they  rest  directly  upon  them.  In  other  localities,  as  in  the  Val  Canaria, 
and  on  the  S.  slopes  of  the  Lukmanier  Pass,  the  *  Rauchwacke '  attains 
to  a  considerable  thickness.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  peculiar 
friable  rock  has  been  deposited  under  exceptional  physical  conditions  ; 
probably  much  of  it,  like  calcareous  tufas,  is  not  of  organic  but  of 
chemical  origin,  a  precipitate  in  the  isolated  recesses  of  a  hilly  district, 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE  ALPS.  lxxvii 

which  was  subsiding  somewhat  irregularly,  so  that  lagoons  were  formed, 
which  communicated  intermittently  with  the  open  sea,  or  salt  lakes  were 
produced  in  basins  of  inland  drainage,  as  in  Utah  or  Thibet. 

Triassic  and  Rhaetic  deposits,  however,  assume  a  greater  importance 
E.  of  the  Rhine,  and  may  be  traced  on  the  N.  side  of  the  central 
crystalline  range  through  the  great  zone  of  limestone  mountains  almost 
up  to  the  longitude  of  Vienna.  South  of  the  crystalline  range,  Triassic 
strata  set  in  on  the  E.  side  of  the  S.  part  of  Lago  Maggiore,  though  a 
few  outliers  occur  further  W.  :  they  rapidly  expand  in  thickness,  and 
occupy  a  wider  area,  so  that  in  the  district  from  the  Lake  of  Lugano  to 
that  of  Garda,  Jurassic  and  later  rocks  are  confined  to  the  S.  border  of 
the  mountain  district.  Thus  the  sedimentary  zone,  south  of  the  crystalline 
range  which  forms  the  watershed  of  the  Tyrol,  is  practically  composed  of 
rocks  belonging  to  the  Triassic  or  Rhaetic  systems.  Curving  upwards 
from  the  N.  part  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  these  continue  to  run  south  of  the 
crystalline  axis  (one  or  two  outliers  occurring  on  the  Brenner  Pass)  and 
extend  to  the  E.  end  of  the  chain.  The  grand  crags,  towers,  and  battle- 
ments of  the  well  known  Dolomite  Alps  are  all  excavated  from  strata  of 
Triassic  or  Rhaetic  age.  In  both  these  systems,  from  the  valley  of  the  Rhine 
eastwards,  N.  and  S.  of  the  central  range,  the  dominant  rock  is  light 
fawn-coloured  limestone  or  dolomite  :  this  is  sometimes  interstratified 
with  red  or  dark-coloured  clays,  and  occasional  sandy  beds.  The 
complete  section  from  the  base  of  the  Trias  to  the  top  of  the  Rhaetic, 
exhibited  on  both  the  N.  and  S.  sides  of  the  central  range,  indicates  a 
great  marine  series,  very  different  from  the  abnormal  and  imperfect  Trias 
of  Britain.  Not  only  is  the  '  Muschelkalk  '  of  the  Vosges  district  repre- 
sented, but  also  the  sandstones  and  clays  of  the  Bunter  and  Keuper  are 
replaced  by  great  masses  of  marine  deposits.  Of  these  the  most  note- 
worthy are  the  Dachstein  dolomite  ('  Hauptdolomit ')  of  both  the  N. 
and  S.  range  (Rhaetic),  and  the  Schlern  dolomite  (Keuper).  The  last 
deposit  is  rather  limited  in  extent,  but  of  it  the  grand  cliffs  of  the  Schlern, 
Langkofel,  and  neighbouring  mountains  as  far  as  the  Marmolata  are 
composed  ;  those  of  the  Tofana,  the  Pelmo,  the  Antelao,  and  the 
mountains  E.  of  the  Ampezzo  Pass  are  Dachstein  dolomite,  for  the 
Schlern  rock  attenuates  eastward.  The  last  word  has  not  yet  been 
written  on  these  stupendous  masses  of  dolomite,  but  many  geologists 
think  that,  directly  or  indirectly,  they  owe  their  origin  to  ancient  coral 
reefs.  Tuffs  and  lava-flows  occur  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Trias  in  the 
Schlern  district  ;  these,  however,  are  lithologically  very  different  from 
the  similar  masses  of  Permian  age,  for  the  so  called  augite-porphyry  of 
the  Trias  is  in  reality  only  a  variety  of  basalt  or  dolerite.  These  are 
well  displayed  on  the  Seisser  Alp.  But  a  still  more  interesting  group  of 
igneous  rocks,  which  is  somewhat  later  in  date,  occurs  in  the  vicinity 
of  Predazzo.  Here  more  than  one  species  is  found  ;  the  earliest, 
according  to  Mojsisovics,  is  the  so  called  syenite  of  Monzoni  (now  often 
called  Monzonite),  a  coarse-grained  rock,  consisting  mainly  of  two  kinds 
of  felspar,  with  augite  or  hornblende  ;  a  Tourmaline-granite  breaks 
through  this  ;  later  still  are  'melaphyres'  and  *  augite-porphyries,'  besides 
some  others  which  occur  in  comparatively  small  masses  or  dykes. 
Volcanic  rock  of  Triassic  age  does  not  occur  further  to  the  E. 


Ixxviii  INTRODUCTION. 

Jurassic. — In  the  Eastern  Alps  the  Triassic  system  is  succeeded  con- 
formably by  the  Jurassic.      South  of  the  central  crystalline  range  the 
representatives  of  the   latter  system   are  often   reduced  by  subsequent 
denudation   to   isolated    patches,   but    they   become    more    continuous 
towards    the    S.    margin    of    the    sedimentary   zone.       They   are  well 
preserved  on  the  W.  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Adige,  and  about  the  head 
of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  and  may  be  followed  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Lago  Maggiore.     On  the  N.  side,  however,  of  the  central  range  they  are 
more  widely  developed,  and  may  be  traced,  with  occasional   intervals, 
along  the   N.  sedimentary  range   into    Switzerland,   occurring  in  force 
between  the  valleys  of  the   Inn  and  the  Rhine.     W.  of  the  latter  river 
they  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  great  sedimentary  zone  of  the 
Glarus  and  Bernese  Alps,  and  pass  on,  across  the  Rhone,  through  Savoy 
along  the  E.  side  of  the  crystalline  axis  which  extends  from  the  Mont 
Blanc  group  to  that  of  the  Belledonne,  in  Dauphine.     S.  of  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  latter  and  of  the  Pelvoux  group  the  whole  Alpine  region  E.  of 
the  Rhone  (much  of  which  is  drained  by  the  Durance)  consists  of  Jurassic 
rocks  overlain  by  later  Secondary,  and  in  some  places  also  by  the  earlier 
Tertiary  deposits ;  these  continue  until  the  Maritime  Alps  slope  steeply 
down  to  the   Mediterranean.      Strips  of  Jurassic    sediments,  generally 
narrow,  are  also  enfolded  among  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  main  water- 
shed of  the  Alps,  as,  for  instance,  along   the   trough  which   is  partly 
interrupted  by  the  Oberalp  and  Furka  Passes.     Similar  strips  occur  to  a 
less  extent  on  the  S.  side  of  the  same  great  watershed,  as  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  Val  Bedretto.     These  last  deposits  belong  to  the  Lias,  and 
are  generally  dark  slaty  mudstones,  occasionally  interbanded  with  thin 
sandstones.     On  the  Lukmanier  Pass,  as  at  the  Vitgira  Alp,  and  on  the 
flanks  of  the  Scopi,  on  the  Furka  and  Nufenen  Passes,  and  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Gries  Pass,  belemnites  are  found,  much  distorted  by  pressure, 
together  with  occasional  fragments  of  other  fossils.     In  these  localities 
(except  on  the  Furka)  the  dark  calcareous  mudstones  also  contain,  often 
in  the  same  blocks  with  the  fossils,  ovoid  bodies  ('  knoten ')  and  rather 
rounded  prisms  ('  prismen '),  which  project  from  weathered  surfaces,  and 
have  a  curious  '  spotted '  appearance.     The  error,  to  which  these  have 
given  rise,   has   been   already   mentioned.      Belemnites   thus    crushed 
have  also  been   found  near  the  Plateau  de  Paris,  above  La  Grave,  in 
Dauphine.     About  Bourg  d'Oisans  the  cliffs  of  Lias  often  present  very 
striking  alternations  of  dark  slaty  and  of  lighter,  more  '  stony '  layers, 
which  recall  some  of  the  banded  deposits  in  the  Lower  Lias  of  England, 
such  as  are  worked  for  the  manufacture  of  cement.     The  more  slaty 
members,  such  as  the  rocks  in  the  Val  Ferret,  or  in  places  on  the  Furka 
Pass,  were  probably  once  a  shale  or  clay,  like  some  of  the  Upper  Lias  of 
Yorkshire  or  Rutland.     But  in  the  N.  and  S.  ranges  of  the  Eastern  Alps, 
and  in  the  more  S.  parts  of  the  Western  (French)  Alps,  especially  where 
the  Lias  is  some  distance  away  from  the  crystalline  massif,  limestones 
become  important  constituents,  and  the  beds  often  contain  a  rich  and 
varied  fauna,  among  which  ammonites  sometimes  become  abundant. 

Except  in  the  isolated  localities  already  mentioned,  the  other  members 
of  the  Jurassic  system  generally  succeed  the  Lias,  and  representatives  of 
the   Lower,    Middle,  and   Upper   Oolites    of  this    country  have  been 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxix 

identified.  (The  second  is  generally  the  most  developed,  the  first  and 
third  are  sometimes  rather  attenuated.)  Still  in  some  parts  of  the  Alps 
the  group  as  a  whole  is  represented  by  a  great  thickness  of  rock.  The 
necessarily  restricted  compass  of  this  essay  prevents  any  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  the  various  subdivisions,  and  their  numerous  variations  in 
different  parts  of  the  chain.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  the  magnificent 
outer  mountain  zone  which  extends  from  the  valley  of  the  Reuss  through 
the  Bernese  Oberland  to  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  above  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  and  then  sweeps  away  to  the  S.W.  into  French  territory,  is 
largely  formed  from  rocks  of  the  Jurassic  age.  Limestones  are  frequent, 
and  sometimes  attain  considerable  thickness  ;  in  colour  they  vary  from 
light  to  dark,  but  commonly  change  to  a  warm  buff,  or  a  dull  grey  tint,  on 
weathered  surfaces.  The  grand  limestone  cliffs  which  rise  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  Lake  of  Brienz,  or  above  the  valley  of  Lauterbrunnen,  and  the 
pastures  on  either  side  of  Grindelwald,  are  also  composed  of  rocks, 
which  are  the  equivalents  of  the  English  Oolites  (for  in  this  district  the 
Lias  is  but  poorly  represented).  It  may  perhaps  be  said  that  wherever 
particularly  fine  cliff  scenery  occurs  in  the  Central  or  Western  Alps 
the  rocks  will  probably  be  the  equivalents  of  the  English  Oolites, 
though  often  very  different  in  their  lithological  character,  and  that  the 
upper  (and  major)  portion  of  the  Jurassic  system  plays  in  the  scenery 
the  part  which  in  the  Eastern  Alps  is  taken  by  the  Trias  or  Rhaetic. 

Neocomian  and  Cretaceous. — These  systems,  the  Lower  and  Upper 
Cretaceous  of  many  geologists,  are  also  well  developed  in  the  Alps.  On 
the  N.  range  they  come  in  succession  to  the  Jurassic  system,  but  in  its 
most  E.  part,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Salzkammergut,  a  rather  marked 
break  (which  will  be  noticed  presently)  occurs  between  the  Cretaceous 
and  the  Neocomian.  This,  however,  disappears  further  W.,  and  has  not 
been  observed  in  the  Tyrol  or  in  Switzerland.  In  the  N.E.  region  also 
it  is  often  difficult  to  separate  the  Cretaceous  deposits  from  the  Eocene, 
for  they  assume  the  character  of  a  group  of  rocks,  which  are  commonly 
called  the  Flysch,  and  will  be  more  particularly  noticed  below.  Passing 
over  them  for  a  time,  the  Neocomian  and  other  Cretaceous  rocks  appear 
to  occur  only  in  strips  and  patches  on  the  N.  zone  until  they  reach  the 
W.  side  of  the  valley  of  the  111.  Then  they  form  a  continuous  mass 
which  extends  through  the  N.  Oberland  across  the  head  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  into  Savoy,  and  so  they  run  along  the  W.  side  of  the  chain  by 
Chambe^ry  and  Grenoble,  till  they  broaden  out  and  occupy  a  large  area 
between  the  Drac,  the  Durance,  and  the  Rhone.  Then  they  fringe  the 
Jurassic  zone  which  sweeps  inland  from  the  mouth  of  the  Var  to  Toulon, 
reaching  the  sea  near  Nice  and  the  Maritime  Alps,  and  forming  the 
subordinate  ranges  which  lie  E.  of  the  lower  course  of  the  Rhone,  and 
inland  from  the  coast  at  Toulon.  S.  of  the  main  watershed  Neocomian 
and  Cretaceous  rocks  begin  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lago  di 
Varese,  and  can  be  traced,  with  interruptions,  to  the  Lake  of  Garda.  To 
the  E.  of  this  they  become  more  continuous,  and  extend  over  a  larger 
area  as  far  as  the  valley  of  the  Tagliamento.  Yet  further  E.  they 
continue,  after  a  short  interruption,  and  are  grandly  developed  about  th< 
Semmering  Pass  and  in  the  ranges  parallel  with  the  Adriatic  through 
I  stria  and  Dalmatia.     The  pale  cream-coloured  limestones  which  are  a 


lxxx  INTRODUCTION. 

characteristic  feature  in  the  mountains  and  islands  of  the  E.  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  are  of  Cretaceous  age. 

The  Neocomian  system  in  the  Alps  consists  partly  of  clayey,  partly  of 
calcareous  rock,  the  light-coloured  limestones  called  '  Schrattenkalk ' 
belonging  to  the  upper  part  of  the  system.  It  is  the  equivalent  of  the 
Urgonian  group,  and  contains  as  characteristic  fossils  Caprotina 
ammonia  and  Radiolites  neocomensis,  over  which  comes  a  limestone 
containing  very  abundantly  a  foraminifer  (Orbitolites  lenticularis).  The 
'  Schrattenkalk '  is  characterised  by  the  curious  rifts  and  fissures  of  its 
weathered  surface,  which  gives  to  its  scenery  a  singularly  wild  and  some- 
times rather  desolate  aspect.  To  this  system  also  belongs  the  Biancone 
of  the  Venetian  Alps,  which  also  extends  into  Lombardy,  where  it  takes 
the  name  Majolica.  The  Cretaceous  system  proper  is  variable  in 
character,  and  in  no  part  resembles  the  soft  white  chalk,  which  in 
England  is  its  most  important  constituent.  The  horizon  of  the  Gault 
and  Upper  Greensand,  as  well  as  different  parts  of  the  Chalk,  have  been 
identified  by  fossils.  In  the  Salzkammergut  region  the  system  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Gosau  beds,  clays,  and  sandstones,  which  contain  a  rich 
fauna,  and  rest, with  unconformity,  on  Neocomian  beds.  They  are  approxi- 
mately contemporaneous  with  the  upper  part  of  the  English  Chalk.  In 
Switzerland  the  *  Sewenkalk,'  with  beds  representing  the  Gault  and  Upper 
Greensand  of  England,  is  well  developed,  and  the  whole  system,  together 
with  those  of  the  Neocomian  and  Jurassic,  is  implicated  in  the  great 
folds  on  the  N.  margin  of  the  Alps,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Bay  of  Uri  by 
the  side  of  the  Axenstrasse.  The  Cretaceous  system  is  well  represented, 
generally  by  calcareous  rocks,  in  the  districts  of  the  French  Alps  which 
have  been  mentioned  above.  Of  its  occurrence  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
Alps  it  may  suffice  to  say  that  limestone  is  the  dominant  rock.  This,  in 
the  Venetian  Alps,  where  it  is  the  equivalent  of  the  Senonian  or  Upper 
Chalk,  is  an  argillaceous  limestone,  stratified  in  thin  layers,  called 
'  Scaglia,3  containing  sometimes  flint  nodules,  and  varying  in  colour  from 
white  to  dark  red.  In  Lombardy  this  stage  is  represented  by  marly 
limestones  and  sandstones.  Flint  also  occurs  in  the  hard  and  nearly 
white  limestones  of  I  stria  and  Dalmatia,  already  mentioned,  which  are 
singularly  compact,  and  furnish  a  splendid  building  stone.  The  moun- 
tains are  rather  barren,  for  much  of  the  water  disappears  down  swallow 
holes  and  fissures. 

Eocene  {including  Oligocene), — The  great  break  which  in  England 
separates  the  Secondary  from  the  Tertiary  series  does  not  exist  in  the 
Alps,  for  the  Cretaceous  system  is  followed  in  regular  succession  by  the 
Eocene,  and  in  some  places  it  is  impossible  to  fix  upon  any  well  marked 
line  of  separation  between  them,  owing  to  the  rarity  of  fossils.  The  beds 
referred  to  the  lower  part  of  the  Tertiary  have  commonly  a  rather  peculiar 
character,  and  recent  investigations  have  shown  that  the  group,  to  which 
the  name  of  Flysch  has  long  been  given,  and  of  which  the  exact  geological 
position  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute,  belongs  really  in  one  part  of  the 
Alps  to  the  Cretaceous  and  in  another  to  the  Eocene  system.  This 
indicates,  of  course,  that  the  physical  conditions  of  which  the  Flysch  is  a 
result  began  in  one  part  of  the  Alps  at  an  earlier  date  than  they  did  in 
another.     The  Flysch  in  the  E.  part  of  the  Alps  is  more  arenaceous  in 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxxi 

character  than  it  is  in  the  W.  part,  and  takes  the  name  of  Vienna  sand- 
stone. Here,  in  the  extreme  E.,  it  seems,  so  far  as  can  be  inferred  from 
the  fossils  (occasionally  found),  to  begin  even  in  the  Neocomian  period. 
But  in  the  Salzkammergut  district  it  appears  to  be  truly  Cretaceous,  and 
W.  of  this  to  correspond  with  the  higher  members  of  the  same  system 
together  with  part  of  the  Eocene,  for  it  is  overlain  by  beds  containing 
nummulites.  In  the  Algau  districts  (Bregenzerwald)  the  Flysch  follows 
upon  the  '  Sewenkalk,'  where  the  latter  represents  the  uppermost  horizon 
of  the  Cretaceous,  and  has  thus  gradually  mounted  to  the  threshold  of 
the  Tertiary  series,  to  which  in  Switzerland  it  is  restricted.  As  in  that 
region  beds  containing  nummulites  are  included  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
Flysch,  the  latter  must  be  the  equivalent  of  the  Eocene  up  to  somewhere 
about  the  horizon  of  the  Middle  Bagshot  beds  in  England.  The  Flysch, 
as  distinguished  by  lithological  characters,  comes  to  an  end  about 
Chambery,  though  Eocene  beds  are  continued  further  southwards. 

As  the  lithological  peculiarities  of  the  Flysch  are  more  characteristic 
of  the  Eocene  system  in  the  N.  than  in  the  S.  zone  of  the  Alps,  it  may  be 
convenient  to  describe  them  briefly  before  proceeding  further.  The 
Flysch  consists  of  clayey  or  sandy  limestones,  sandstones,  and  conglome- 
rates or  breccias,  with  shaly  or  slaty  beds  (sometimes  largely  developed), 
which  are  frequently  interbanded  together,  and  form  together  a  rather 
conspicuously  stratified  group  several  hundred  yards  thick.  As  a  rule 
fossils  are  scarce,  or  consist  only  of  obscure  markings  referred  to  plants, 
or  of  the  tracks  of  worms  and  other  organisms,  though  occasionally  in 
certain  localities  a  sufficiently  abundant  fauna  has  been  discovered  to 
indicate  the  geological  position  of  the  deposit.  The  noted  fossil  fishes  of 
Glarus  occur  in  strata  corresponding  with  the  uppermost  Eocene  or 
Oligocene,  and  the  Brown  coal  of  Haringin  the  valley|of  the  Inn  occupies 
nearly  the  same  horizon. 

But  the  most  interesting  and  most  puzzling  beds  in  the  Flysch  are  the 
conglomerates  or  breccias.  These,  in  many  localities,  include  erratic 
blocks  of  great  size,  which  long  since  attracted  the  notice  of  geologists. 
One  of  the  best  known  localities  is  the  Habkernthal,  within  a  few  miles 
of  Interlaken.  Another  place,  easily  accessible,  is  on  the  road  to 
Ormonts-Dessus,  a  short  distance  above  Sepey,  but  these  boulders  occur 
in  many  other  parts  of  the  Alps.  According  to  Dr.  E.  Fraas *  'they 
extend  along  the  whole  Flysch  zone,'  and  near  Vienna  on  the  Waschberg 
and  Holingsteinerberg,  near  Stockerau,  contain  huge  erratic  blocks,  one 
of  the  largest  of  which,  a  red  granite,  has  been  used  as  an  appropriate 
memorial  to  L.  von  Buch.  Similarly,  to  the  W.,  near  Sonthofen,  in  the 
Algau,  and  in  Switzerland  these  foreign  blocks  are  associated  with  a 
great  line  of  overthrust.  The  erratics,  large  and  small,  consist  of  man) 
kinds  of  rock,  sedimentary  and  crystalline,  but  some  of  the  latter  call  for 
special  attention.*  A  diabase  is  conspicuous  in  the  E.  Alps  ;  but  varieties 
of  this  rock  have  also  been  found  in  the  Swiss  breccias.  Those, 
however,  to  which  more  attention  has  been  paid  are  granites.  Blocks  of 
this  rock  about  four  yards  long,  and  more  than  thirty  cubic  yards  in 
volume,   are   not   uncommon.       In   form  they  are  generally  somewhat 

*  Scenerie  der  Alpen,  p.  257  (1892). 

e 


Ixxxii  INTRODUCTION. 

rounded,  and  resemble  the  blocks  which  have  been  lying  for  some  time 
in  an  Alpine  torrent,  rather  than  on  a  moraine.  The  interesting  collection 
from  the  Habkernthal  in  the  Bern  Museum  contains  about  seven  varieties 
of  granite  ;  most,  if  not  all,  of  these  are  different  from  any  known  to  the 
writer  as  occurring  in  the  neighbouring  crystalline  zone,  or,  as  a  rule,  in 
any  other  parts  of  the  Alps.  One  of  the  most  striking  is  a  porphyritic 
granite  not  unlike  a  variety  common  in  the  Schwarzwald.*  In  the  Hab- 
kernthal the  Flysch,  about  the  horizon  of  the  boulders,  is  a  brownish  or 
blackish  mudstone,  rudely  fissile,  perhaps  cleaved,  containing  hard  cal- 
careous lumps,  seemingly  segregatory.  It  is  interrupted  by  streaks  and 
lenticular  patches  of  grit,  conglomerate,  or  breccia.  These,  in  some 
places,  are  frequent,  and  very  curiously  interspersed  ;  this,  however,  may 
be  due  to  the  breaking  up  (by  subsequent  earth  movements)  of  larger 
masses  ;  still  the  sudden  and  sporadic  occurrence  of  these  patches  of 
coarser  material  in  the  finer  mudstone  is  very  perplexing  ;  this  peculiarity 
and  the  aspect  of  the  rocks  themselves  suggest  that  a  load  of  grit  and 
boulders  has  been  suddenly  thrown  down  (almost  as  if  it  had  been  tipped 
from  a  ballast  waggon)  in  a  deposit,  which  normally  was  more  or  less  a 
mudstone.  In  the  Sepey  district  the  mudstones,  sandstones,  finer  and 
coarser  conglomerates  are  distinctly  interbanded,  but  the  biggish  blocks, 
which  sometimes  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  large  as  those  in  the  Hab- 
kernthal, occur  sporadically.  For  instance,  in  one  place  a  rather  egg- 
shaped  block  of  granite,  about  nine  feet  by  six,  lies  in  a  bed  of  conglo- 
merate (the  materials  of  which  are  more  or  less  rounded,  but  can  hardly 
be  called  good  '  pebbles'),  about  four  yards  thick,  in  which  the  other 
fragments  range  from  about  two  feet  in  diameter  downwards.  In  another 
place,  a  block,  perhaps  even  larger,  is  apparently  almost  isolated  in  the 
ordinary  mudstone.  In  the  Ormonts  valley,  however,  many  of  these 
boulders  consist  of  a  grey  granite  or  gneiss,  and  more  closely  resemble 
Alpine  types. 

To  account  satisfactorily  for  the  presence  of  these  erratics  is  no  easy 
task.  Some  geologists  regard  them  as  the  relics  of  a  vanished  mountain 
range,  which,  at  that  epoch,  existed  to  the  N.  of  the  region  where  these 
erratics  now  occur,  or  as  indications  of  an  ancient  shore  line.  Still  this 
solution  of  the  problem  presents  serious  difficulties.  The  beds,  as  a 
whole,  do  not  resemble  an  ordinary  shore  deposit  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  low  reefs  or  low  cliffs,  and,  if  the  action  of  torrents  be  invoked  to  explain 
the  presence  of  bands  of  conglomerates  and  of  large  boulders  in  a  group 
of  strata  generally  fine-grained,  these  could  only  have  descended  from  a 
rather  lofty  mountain  range,  and  it  is  very  strange  that  all  other  traces  of 
it  should  have  so  completely  vanished  since  Eocene  times.  If,  however, 
we  suppose  mountains  to  have  existed  on  the  site  of  the  present  Alps, 
then  their  crystalline  rocks  must  often  have  differed  from  any  which  are 
now  exposed.  Indeed,  neither  supposition  removes  the  main  difficulty — 
namely,  how  these  large  blocks  were  transported.  It  seems  impossible 
to  suppose  that  the  lower  Habkernthal  could  have  been  the  site  of  a  great 
range  of  crystalline  rocks  in  Eocene  times.  In  that  case  Secondary 
rocks  should  be  absent  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lakes  of  Thun  and 

*  Something  like  the  lighter  variety  of  the  Shapfell  granite  in  England. 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE  ALPS.  lxxxiii 

Brienz.  If  then  these  blocks  have  travelled  for  some  distance,  how  did 
they  come  ?  Either  bergs  or  rafts  of  shore  ice  seem  to  be  the  only 
possible  modes  of  conveyance.  But  to  this  supposition  the  palseontolo- 
gical  evidence  is  directly  opposed,  for,  according  to  it,  the  temperature 
throughout  Eocene  ages  was  always  higher,  and  often  very  much  higher, 
than  it  is  at  present  ;  hence  that  the  winters  should  be  cold  enough  to 
form  coast  ice  seems  impossible,  and  that  glaciers  should  reach  the  sea 
hardly  more  probable.  Thus  these  erratics  must  remain  for  the  present 
among  the  unsolved  problems  of  geology. 

On  the  S.  side  of  the  chain  Eocene  deposits  are  restricted  to  the  E. 
part,  where  they  present  more  than  one  feature  of  interest.  In  the 
Vicentin  district  the  '  Scaglia '  beds,  which  form  the  uppermost  part  of 
the  Cretaceous  system,  are  followed  by  a  group  of  deposits,  among  which 
basaltic  cliffs  afford  proofs  of  contemporaneous  volcanic  action.  Over 
these,  in  the  Middle  Eocene,  come  the  calcareous  shales  of  Monte  Bolca, 
which  have  been  for  long  noted  for  their  numerous  fossil  fishes  and  plants  ; 
in  other  districts  further  E.,  at  about  the  same  level,  are  beds  with  fora- 
minifera  (nummulites  and  alveolina).  In  the  Vicentin,  at  a  somewhat 
higher  level,  are  beds  of  fresh-water  origin,  containing  brown  coal  ;  with 
these  is  associated  the  most  important  lava-flow  (basalt)  in  the  district, 
which  sometimes  attains  a  thickness  of  about  ioo  yards.  The  remainder 
of  the  Eocene,  and  part  of  the  Oligocene,  is  represented  by  the  noted 
fossiliferous  deposits  of  Castel  Gomberto  (among  which  are  some  tuffs)  ; 
these  are  generally  assigned  to  the  Middle  Oligocene,  though  in  some 
places  they  also  belong  to  the  Upper.  The  top  of  this  group  is  formed 
by  fresh-water  deposits.  Further  W.  the  Eocene  is  not  well  represented, 
and  its  upper  parts  assume  the  aspect  of  the  Flysch. 

Between  the  latest  of  the  Eocene  or  Oligocene  deposits  in  the  Alpine 
region  and  the  earliest  of  the  Miocene  a  considerable  time  must  have 
elapsed,  and  great  physical  changes  occurred,  for,  during  that  interval, 
the  Alps  came  into  existence  as  a  mountain  chain.  Doubtless  their 
growth  was  slow.  In  the  N.E.  district  it  began,  as  we  have  seen,  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  Cretaceous  era,  but  further  to  the  W.  no 
evidence  is  found  of  any  marked  disturbances  at  this  date.  Probably, 
however,  a  larger  area  was  affected  during  the  Eocene  age,  and  the 
movements  became  more  marked,  as  the  disturbing  forces  acted  with 
greater  intensity,  during  the  Oligocene  era.* 

In  the  Central  and  Western  Alps  the  latest  beds  implicated  in  this 
series  of  movements  are  referred  to  the  Lower  Oligocene.  Beds  of  this, 
or  of  late  Eocene  age,  are  now  found  at  great  elevations,  as  on  the 
Diablerets  (10,650  ft)  and  the  Pointe  de  Salles  (8,183  ft.),  while  in  the 
Aiguilles  d'Arves  they  reach  11,520  ft.  The  earliest  deposits  which 
apparently  formed  outside  the  zone  of  upheaval  are  referred  to  the 
middle  of  the  Oligocene  ;  these,  however,  are  limited  in  extent  while 
the  representatives  of  the  remainder  of  that  system  and  of  the  Miocene 
are  spread  over  a  much  wider  area.  The  beds  consist  largely  of  sand- 
stones and  conglomerates.     These,  for  the  most  part,  are  of  fresh-water 

*  The  Upper  Eocene  and  Lower  Miocene  of  many  geologists. 
e  2 


lxxxiv  INTRODUCTION. 

origin,  but  the  occasional  intercalation  of  marine  deposits  shows  that 
the  sea  was  still  near  at  hand. 

On  the  N.  border  of  the  chain  these  conglomerates,  called  nagelfluh, 
sometimes,  as  in  the  Rigi  and  the  Speer,  attain  a  great  thickness.  They 
present  many  resemblances  to  the  stratified  gravels  on  the  lowlands 
N.  and  S.  of  the  present  chain,  and  were  obviously  deposited  by  strong 
and  rapid  rivers.  Although  a  few  pebbles  of  crystalline  rock  have  not 
yet  been  identified  in  situ  in  the  Alps,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the 
nagelfluh  represents  the  deltas  of  rivers,  which  flowed  from  the  Alps  as 
they  then  existed.  These  conglomerates  are  now  referred  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  Miocene.*  The  molasse  (mostly  sandstone),  in  many  places, 
has  yielded  abundant  plant  remains  ;  the  fauna  is  sometimes  marine,  or 
brackish- water,  but  is  more  frequently  terrestrial  or  fresh- water,  as  at 
Oeningen.  From  this  locality  came,  with  many  other  vertebrates,  the 
skeleton  of  a  large  salamander,  which  was  described  by  J.  J.  Scheuchzer 
as  homo  diluvii  testis. 

Deposits  of  a  character  generally  similar  to  the  Swiss  molasse  (sand- 
stones with  occasional  conglomerates  or  shales)  may  be  traced  along  the 
border  of  the  Alps  on  both  sides  of  the  chain  ;  these  indicate  that  the 
Miocene  era  was  one  of  extensive  and  active  denudation.  With  its  repre- 
sentatives the  geological  record  in  the  Alpine  regions  practically  closed, 
for  beds  of  Pliocene  age  are  few,  local,  and  unimportant.  That  era  was 
probably  marked,  especially  in  the  Central  Alps,  by  another  epoch  of 
great  earth  movements,  by  which  the  deposits  just  named  were  sometimes 
elevated,  as  in  the  Rigi  and  the  Speer,  about  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
That  period  also,  and  all  the  subsequent  time  down  to  the  present  day, 
has  been  characterised  in  the  Alps  by  denudation  rather  than  by  depo- 
sition. True,  the  Alpine  rivers  have  spread  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel, 
in  some  cases  far  from  thin,  over  the  lowland  valleys  ;  the  Alpine 
glaciers,  during  their  epoch  of  greatest  extension,  built  up  their  moraines 
even  beyond  the  mountains  ;  the  same  glaciers,  as  they  retreated,  have 
scattered  erratics  over  the  district,  and  in  several  places  have  covered  it 
with  a  mantle  of  boulder  clay.  According  to  some  geologists  these  ice 
streams  have  left  a  record  of  their  passage  in  the  excavation  of  the  basins 
of  the  great  Alpine  lakes.  But  this  is  a  moot  question,  which  will  be 
more  fully  discussed  below.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  since  the  end 
of  Miocene  times  the  N.  margin  of  the  Alps  has  never  been  washed  by 
the  waves  of  the  sea.  The  S.  side  of  the  chain  has  also  been  above 
water,  but  probably  the  valley  of  the  Po,  during  Miocene  ages,  at  least, 
formed  a  shallow  gulf,  which  gradually  became  filled  up.  There  may 
have  been  some  slight  general  elevation  of  the  district,  but  probably  the 
accumulation  of  materials,  brought  down  by  the  rivers,  would  suffice  to 
bring  the  surface  to  its  present  level. 

Pleistoce?ie.\ — The  deposits  formed  during  this  period  are  in  most  dis- 
tricts so  insignificant  in  extent  that  they  might  be  passed  over  without 
notice,  were  it  not  for  the  special  interest  that  attaches  to  the  history  of 
the  operations  which  were  in  progress  in  the  Alps  during  the  time  thus 

*  By  some  geologists  they  are  placed  on  a  rather  lower  horizon. 

t  This  section,  with  some  omissions,  is  retained  from  the  first  edition. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxxv 

covered.  These  operations,  whatever  they  may  have  been,  have  resulted 
in  the  transport  of  enormous  quantities  of  solid  matter  from  the  inner  and 
higher  parts  of  the  chain  to  the  wide  channels  of  the  main  valleys,  and  to 
the  low  country  surrounding  the  base  of  the  Alps.  This  transported 
matter  is  of  three  kinds,  each  of  which  deserves  a  brief  notice. 

i.  The  Ancient  Alluvium. — This  is  present  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
on  all  sides  of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  bottoms  of  most  of  the  great  valleys, 
but  is  mainly  developed  on  the  S.  side  of  the  chain,  and  may  there  be 
studied  to  the  best  advantage.  To  this  is  referred  the  masses  of  rolled 
stones,  composed  of  crystalline  or  harder  sedimentary  rocks,  that  at  a 
slight  depth  beneath  the  surface  are  seen  to  spread  along  the  valley  of 
the  Po,  extending  to  a  variable  distance  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
and  along  the  course  of  the  wider  and  deeper  valleys.  A  deposit  of 
similar  character,  covered  only  by  a  thin  skin  of  vegetable  soil,  covers  the 
plain  of  Friuli,  from  the  Piave  to  the  Isonzo,  and,  in  some  places  at  least 
forms  beds  of  considerable  depth. 

2.  Moraine  Deposits. — In  a  subsequent  page  the  reader  will  find  a  brief 
notice  of  the  geological  action  of  glaciers,  where  the  nature  of  those 
masses  of  mineral  matter  which  are  borne  down  from  the  upper  regions 
of  the  Alps  to  the  lower  valleys,  and  are  known  by  the  name  of  moraines, 
is  more  fully  described.  At  many  points  in  valleys,  to  which,  as  we  know 
from  other  evidence,  glaciers  formerly  extended,  mounds  of  transported 
matter,  including  large  angular  blocks  irregularly  dispersed  through 
gravel  and  fine  sand,  still  exist,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  great  valleys  on 
the  S.  side  of  the  Alps  similar  mounds  appear  on  a  great  scale,  sometimes 
forming  hills  of  considerable  height.  Those  which  surround  the  S.  side 
of  the  Lake  of  Garda  are  fully  35  miles  in  length,  and  some  of  them,  as 
that  of  Solferino,  are  nearly  500  ft.  in  height.  The  ancient  moraines 
opposite  the  opening  of  the  valley  of  the  Dora  Baltea  are  on  a  still 
grander  scale. 

3.  Glacial  Silt. — The  action  of  glaciers  in  pulverising  the  underlying 
rocks,  and  transporting  the  materials  to  a  distance  in  the  form  of  ex- 
tremely fine  mud,  is  referred  to  in  Art.  XIV.  (on  Glaciers.)  Accurate 
measures  are  wanting  to  show  the  amount  of  solid  matter  thus  annually 
transported  from  the  Alps  to  the  lower  valleys,  to  the  bottom  of  lakes, 
and  to  the  sea.  Whatever  that  amount  may  be,  it  must  have  been  much 
greater  during  the  period  when  all  the  valleys  of  the  Alps  were  traversed 
by  glaciers,  and  an  extent  of  surface  was  exposed  to  the  grinding  action 
of  those  glaciers  20  or  30  times  as  great  as  the  beds  of  existing  ice- 
streams.  A  large  share  of  this  deposit  must  have  been  carried  into  the 
valley  of  the  Po,  and  when  beyond  the  reach  of  the  ancient  allmium  this 
must  be  the  chief  constituent  of  the  subsoil. 

4.   The  Growth  and  Sculpture  of  the  Alps. 

Though  the  subject  has  already  been  mentioned  indirectly,  the  ques- 
tions involved  are  so  difficult  that  something  may  be  gained  by  regarding 
it  for  a  moment  from  a  different  point  of  view. 

The  Alps,  as  has  been  already  said,  commence  their  history  as  a 
mountain  chain  about  the  middle  of  the  Tertiary  era.     This  is  generally 


lxxxvi  INTRODUCTION. 

admitted,  but  difficulties  begin  when  we  attempt  to  pass  beyond  that 
general  statement.  In  any  speculations  as  to  the  earliest  chapters  in  the 
chronicle  much,  of  course,  must  depend  on  the  views  held  as  to  the  age  of 
the  crystalline  schists.  Many  geologists  have  maintained  that  not  a  few 
of  these  are  metamorphosed  rocks  of  Palaeozoic  or  even  later  ages.  For 
this  opinion  the  writer,  as  already  said,  not  only  can  find  no  warrant,  but 
also  can  produce  much  evidence  to  prove  the  great  antiquity  of  those 
crystalline  rocks  of  which  the  higher  peaks  and  ranges  are  wholly,  or 
almost  wholly,  composed.  The  Silurian  and  Devonian  strata  of  the  N.E. 
Alps,  if  he  may  judge  from  the  results  of  a  limited  investigation,  have 
derived  their  materials  from  older  crystalline  rocks,  which,  however,  may 
not  have  occupied  the  site  of  the  existing  Alps.  But  in  Carboniferous 
ages  the  grits  and  conglomerates,  full  of  fragments  from  the  adjoining 
region,  indicate  that  even  then  the  Alpine  region  was  one  of  hills,  if  not  of 
mountains.  Moreover  these  fragments  often  exhibit  structures  that  prove 
that  the  parent  rocks,  prior  to  this  era,  had  been  affected  by  potent  earth 
movements.  It  is,  however,  hopeless  to  attempt  any  restoration  of  the 
physical  geography  of  the  Alpine  region  during  the  Carboniferous  period. 
No  more  can  be  said  than  that  from  the  W.  of  the  Gailthal  to  the  S.  of 
Dauphine  bold  and  fairly  lofty  hills  must  have  alternated  with  marshy 
lowlands :  the  one  giving  birth  to  strong  streams ;  the  other  supporting, 
not  infrequently,  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  Carboniferous  period 
was  followed  by  another  epoch  of  mountain-making,  certainly  not  less 
pronounced,  which  appears  to  have  affected  more  especially  Switzerland 
and  the  Western  Alps.  There  the  Carboniferous  deposits  were  folded, 
often  sharply,  like  a  pamphlet  shut  up  in  a  book,  between  the  underlying 
crystalline  masses,  and  these  disturbances  were  followed  by  denudation, 
probably  considerable  and  long  continued.  In  many  places,  as  near  Le 
Freney,  in  Dauphine,  and  in  the  Bifertengrat,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Todi, 
secondary  strata  may  be  seen  resting  both  on  the  crystalline  schists  and 
the  denuded  edges  of  the  infolded  Carboniferous  deposits,  thus  indicating 
that  in  parts  of  the  Alps  there  is  a  great  break  between  the  last  members 
of  the  Primary,  or  Palaeozoic,  series  and  the  first  of  the  Secondary,  which 
corresponds  with  an  epoch  of  disturbance  comparable  with  that  which  gave 
birth  to  the  present  mountain  chain.  Of  the  outlines  and  contours  of  these 
pre-Secondary  mountains  nothing  positive  can  be  said.  But,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained, there  is  some  reason  to  think  that  the  folds,  at  any  rate  over  a  con- 
siderable area,  trended  not  far  away  from  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.  The  area, 
however,  occupied  by  these  mountains  did  not  wholly  correspond  with  the 
present  Alpine  region.  The  sea,  for  instance,  must  have  covered  the  latter  to 
some  distance  W.  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  at  any  rate  from  early  Permian 
times,*  for  here,  as  already  mentioned,  the  great  outbursts  of  volcanic 
material  are  associated  with,  and  followed  by,  a  mass  of  marine  deposits, 
which  continue  through  the  Trias  and  Rhaetic  into  the  Jurassic  period. 
Seeing  that  the  united  thickness  of  the  deposits,  from  the  base  of  the 
Permian  to  the  top  of  the  Rhaetic,  can  be  hardly  less  in  some  parts  of  the 
Dolomite  district  than  9,000  feet,  and  that,  in  many  parts  of  the  Alps,  the 

•  In  the  Gailthal  Permian  deposits  appear  to  rest  conformably  on  Carboniferous,  both  being 
marine.     See  Dr.  E.  Fraas,  Scenerie  der  Aipen,  p.  86. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  lxxxvii 

Permian  and  Trias,  as  already  stated,  are  either  absent  or  very  feebly  and 
irregularly  represented,  and  that  the  succeeding  Jurassic  beds  usually 
are  extremely  well  developed,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  first-named 
period  saw  the  beginning  of  a  long  age  of  subsidence  (perhaps  initiated 
by  the  volcanic  outbursts). 

By  the  end  of  the  Triassic  period  the  greater  part  of  these  pre- 
Secondary  Alps  must  have  disappeared  under  water.  The  mountain 
ranges  must  have  been  replaced  by  lines  of  rocky  islands,  till  at  last  the 
highest  peaks  alone  rose  above  the  sea  as  monuments  of  a  drowned  land, 
like  the  Lofoten  islands,  at  the  present  day,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Norway. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  downward  movement  continued 
practically  throughout  the  Secondary  era,  but  a  minor  question  of  some 
interest  may  be  asked,  to  which  opposite  answers  have  been  given.  Did 
these  islands  remain  above  water  until  the  Alps  began  once  more  to  rise, 
and  are  they  now  represented  by  certain  areas  of  the  existing  ranges,  or 
did  '  this  silence  of  the  central  sea '  prevail  for  a  time  where  the  mountain 
peaks  once  rose,  and  now  have  risen  again  ?  Many  geologists,  among 
whom  E.  Fraas  may  be  quoted,  are  of  opinion  that  the  sea  was  always 
interrupted  by  long  narrow  islands  which  corresponded  in  direction  with 
the  present  mountain  ranges.  Something  may  be  said  in  favour  of  this 
view,  but  the  writer  thinks  that,  if  any  islands  escaped  submergence,  they 
must  have  been  very  small.  For  instance,  in  several  parts  of  the  Pennine 
Alps  little  patches  of  '  Rauchwacke '  still  remain  in  the  heart  of  the 
crystalline  districts* S.  of  the  Rhone  valley,  which  are  identical  with  the 
deposit  underlying  the  Jurassic  in  the  same  valley.  As  the  latter  system 
attains  to  a  considerable  thickness,  and  as  the  present  differences  in  level, 
at  which  it  now  occurs,  can  be  shown  to  be  due  to  post- Secondary  dis- 
turbances, it  is  highly  probable  that  the  '  Rauchwacke  '  was  succeeded  by 
other  Secondary  deposits,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  whole  region  was 
gradually  submerged.  Another  point  also  must  not  be  forgotten.  In 
these  Secondary  deposits  conglomerates  are  rare,  and  even  beds  of  sand- 
stone not  very  abundant.  Their  materials  are  fairly  uniform  in  character. 
The  Alpine  Lias,  like  that  of  England,  seems  to  point  to  the  action  of 
large  rivers,  with  embouchures  not  very  remote,  and  the  existence  of  con- 
tinental land,  yet  not  quite  close  at  hand.  It  might,  indeed,  be  urged 
that  a  mountainous  region,  in  subsiding,  broke  up  into  islands,  and  that 
its  valleys  were  converted  into  fiords.  If  so,  no  doubt  it  would  supply 
but  little  coarse  material  ;  still  it  could  hardly  fail  to  interfere  with  the 
continuity  of  the  deposits,  and  the  general  aspect  of  the  Lower  Second- 
ary rocks  in  the  Alps  leads  the  writer  to  infer  that  their  materials  were 
laid  down  over  an  area  comparatively  uninterrupted,  and  were  derived 
from  a  region  at  some  little  distance. 

So  for  long  ages  deposition  went  on  over  the  Alpine  area  ;  if  there- 
was  any  interruption  to,  or  discontinuity  in,  the  subsidence,  it  was  only 
local.  The  first  sign  of  an  upward  movement  occurs,  as  already  stated, 
between  the  Neocomian  and  the  Cretaceous  period,  and  this  only  in  the 
E.  Alps.  From  the  lithological  character  of  the  Vienna  sandstone,  or 
Flysch,  of  the  E.  Alps,  it  seems  probable  that  by  the  close  of  the  Neoco- 
mian period  denudation  had  begun  in  that  region,  though  there  is  no 
proof,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  that  a  mountain  range,  in  the  ordinary 


Ixxxviii  INTRODUCTION. 

sense  of  the  words,  had  been  as  yet  produced.  But  the  Alps  had  begun 
to  grow ;  and  the  movements  gradually  extended  westward,  though,  as 
far  as  can  be  ascertained,  nothing  like  a  mountain  system  existed  in  the 
latter  region  until  after  the  nummulitic  group  had  been  deposited.  Then, 
in  late  Eocene  or  in  early  Oligocene  times,  if  the  more  modern  grouping 
be  preferred,  the  Alps  apparently  rather  rapidly  became  a  great  mountain 
chain.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  though  the  uprising  of  the  Alps 
is  assigned,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  to  a  particular  geological  epoch, 
no  more  is  meant  than  that  deposits  prior  to  this  epoch  afford  no  indica- 
tions of  the  existence  of  mountains,  while  those  posterior  supply  ample 
evidence.  But  the  chain  may  have  continued  to  develope  itself  steadily 
for  long  ages  after  the  epoch  thus  selected  as  a  date.  Accordingly  the 
inner  zones  of  the  Alps  very  probably  continued  to  rise,  while  the  nagel- 
fluh  and  molasse  were  deposited  on  the  lowlands  outside  the  chain, 
where  very  likely  there  was  a  corresponding  subsidence. 

But  to  this  process  also  an  end  came  towards  the  close  of  Miocene 
times.  New  disturbances  began,  produced  apparently  by  thrusts  from 
the  S.,  or  rather  outwards  from  the  plain  of  the  Po  and  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic,  which,  while  they  gave  a  general  uplift  to  the  bordering  low- 
lands of  France,  Switzerland,  and  Austria,  most  intensely  affected  the 
middle  part  of  the  chain — that  is,  roughly  speaking,  the  districts  of  the 
Oberland  and  Glarus  Alps.  The  N.  margin  of  this  zone  affords  remark- 
able examples  of  folding  and  overthrust-faulting.  The  uplifted  nagelfluh 
forms  hills,  which  rise  considerably  more  than  4,000  feet  above  the  general 
level  of  the  lowlands  ;  in  some  places,  as  near  the  Rigi  Scheidegg,  the 
Eocene  beds  were  thrust  over  the  Miocene.  Then  also,  in  all  probability, 
the  remarkable  double  fold*  of  the  Glarus  region  (described  by  Heim), 
and  the  complicated  over-folding  and  faulting  in  the  N.  buttresses  of  the 
Jungfrau,  unravelled  by  Baltzer,  were,  if  not  originated,  at  any  rate 
brought  to  their  present  condition. 

As  the  result  of  these  movements,  which  doubtless  were  long  continued, 
and  perhaps  may  hardly  yet  have  entirely  ceased,  the  present  mountain 
system  of  the  Alps  has  been  upraised.  They  have  been  carved  by  the 
destructive  processes  of  Nature  (to  be  presently  indicated)  into  their 
present  form  ;  these  have  acted  simultaneously  with  the  upraising,  and 
are  certainly  not  yet  at  rest. 

There  is  a  question,  however,  which  is  still  unanswered  :  Were  the 
Alps  formed  by  the  inosculation  of  two  chains  produced  by  separate 
movements  at  different  times,  or  are  they  a  single  chain,  of  which  the  E. 
end  began  to  be  developed  at  an  earlier  epoch  than  the  W.  one  ?  Not  a 
few  authorities  of  the  first  rank  approve  the  former  view,  the  leading 
features  of  which  may  be  briefly  sketched  as  follows.t 

The  Alps  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  two  curved  chains,  the 
convexities  of  both  being  turned  towards  the  N.W.  ;  the  outline  of  each 
of  these  two  chains  can  be  roughly  compared  with  that  of  a  pocket  pistol, 
and  they  are  so  placed  that  their  *  barrels '  are  nearly  parallel,  the  muzzle 
of  one  touching  the  convex  part  of  the  handle  of  the  other. 

*  Probably  the  folding  is  associated  with  thrust  faults. 

t  Much  of  the  following  account  is  taken  from  a  summary  by  Mr.  J.  Eccles  {Alpine  Journal, 
xv.  p.  561  sgg.)  of  Dr.  C.  Diener's  work  entitled  Der  Gebirgsbau  der  West-Alfien  (1891). 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE  ALPS.  lxxxix 

The  West  chain  commences  at  the  Maritime  Alps,  and  consists  of  two 
principal  crystalline  zones — indicating  regions  of  maximum  disturbance 
— named  respectively  after  Monte  Rosa  and  Mont  Blanc,  between  which 
is  a  zone  (part  of  the  Brian^onnais)  mainly  consisting  of  sedimentary 
deposits,  and  forming  an  infolded  trough.  There  is  also  an  outer  sedi- 
mentary zone,  beyond  which  are  others,  less  well  defined,  and  more 
limited  in  extent,  including  the  zone  of  the  molasse  and  the  chain  of  the 
Jura.  The  Monte  Rosa  zone  extends  from  near  Cuneo,  in  Piedmont,  to 
the  Adula  group  ;  it  includes  the  central  nuclei  of  the  Cottian  and  Graian 
Alps,  the  group  of  Monte  Rosa,  with  the  neighbouring  peaks,  and  the 
Alps  of  Ticino.  In  this  zone  the  arrangement  of  the  beds,  broadly 
speaking,  is  comparatively  uniform  throughout,  consisting,  in  the  W.  part, 
mainly  of  a  regular  series  of  anticlinals  of  moderate  elevation,  affected 
only  by  local  disturbances,  while  further  E.,  in  the  more  central  portion 
of  the  zone,  steep  dips  and  generally  more  complicated  conditions  prevail. 
This  zone  comes  to  an  end  about  the  Blegno  and  Leventina  valleys,  on 
the  E.  side  of  which  the  dip  of  its  beds  makes  a  high  angle  with  that  of 
the  beds  in  a  chain  running  S.  from  the  Adula  group.  The  Mont  Blanc 
zone  has  been  subjected  to  much  greater  disturbance,  and  is  a  region  of 
intense  lateral  pressure.  This  zone  begins  in  the  Maritime  Alps,  and 
can  be  traced  over  a  region  often  occupied  by  Secondary  or  Tertiary 
rocks,  by  occasionally  outcropping  crystalline  masses,  such  as  the 
Pelvoux,  Grandes  Rousses,  and  Belledonne  groups.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  over  this  region  (and  the  same  holds  further  N.)  the  zone 
exhibits  a  rather  complicated  structure,  and  consists  of  more  than  a 
single  fold.  It  passes  on  through  the  Mont  Blanc  group  and  the  parallel 
range  of  the  Brevent,  crosses  the  Rhone  valley  near  Vernayaz,  and  runs 
through  the  Bernese  Oberland  to  beyond  the  Reuss.  In  places,  as  in 
Mont  Blanc  itself,  the  fan  structure  is  strongly  developed.  The  Adula 
group,  as  it  strikes  approximately  at  right  angles  to  the  trend  of  the 
Monte  Rosa  group,  cannot,  according  to  Dr.  Diener,  be  part  of  the 
system  of  the  Western  Alps.  In  the  East  chain,  which  it  begins,  the  beds 
turn  gradually  eastwards,  until  at  last  they  trend  continuously  nearly  in 
that  direction.  The  essential  structure  of  the  Eastern  system  is  a  cen- 
tral crystalline  zone  flanked  by  calcareous  and  other  sedimentary  rocks  ; 
it  is  thus  more  simple  than  that  of  the  W.  half  of  the  Alps. 

By  Dr.  Diener's  theory  of  the  separate  origin  of  the  two  parts  of  the 
Alpine  chain  several  difficulties  in  its  structure  are  explained  :  notably 
the  way  in  which  the  Alpine  chain  appears  to  broaden  out  in  approaching 
the  Lake  of  Garda,  the  marked  N.N.E.  and  S.S.W.  trend  of  the  sedi- 
mentary deposits  in  this  and  the  adjoining  regions,  and  the  apparently 
more  complicated  structure  of  the  W.  half  of  the  Alps.  But  it  creates 
other  difficulties.  For  instance,  the  sedimentary  deposits  on  the  margin 
of  the  Alps  appear  to  extend  from  E.  to  W.  without  any  break  such  as 
the  junction  of  two  chains  might  be  expected  to  present,  and  the  structure 
of  the  outer  zone  seems  to  accord  better  with  the  hypothesis  that  the 
Alps  were  the  result  of  sets  of  simultaneous  movements,  but  that  the 
later  disturbances  acted  more  powerfully  in  the  central  than  in  the  E. 
region.  Moreover,  while  the  existence  of  a  cross  trend  in  the  strata 
{i.e.  from   N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.)   is   most  perceptible  about   the    Lake   of 


XC  INTRODUCTION. 

Garda,  it  is  by  no  means  restricted  to  that  region.*  'The  Order  massif 
and  the  district  to  its  N.  seem  indicative  of  another  and  less  clearly 
marked  parallel  trough  j  the  rather  abrupt  cessation  of  the  region  of 
Secondary  rock,  on  the  S.  side,  near  that  end  of  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and 
the  remarkable  bend  of  the  watershed  of  the  Pennine  chain,  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Vispthal,  also  suggest  the  effect  of  an  anticlinal  running  in 
the  same  direction  ;  while,  yet  further  W.,  to  beyond  Mont  Blanc,  the 
general  trend,  both  of  the  ridges  of  crystalline  rock  and  of  the  troughs 
of  Secondary,  suggests  similar  disturbances.  Obviously  the  whole  course 
of  the  chain  for  a  long  distance  S.  of  Mont  Blanc  corresponds  with  the 
same  line  of  folding,  but  this  might  be  an  accidental  coincidence.  It 
can,  however,  hardly  be  a  mere  chance  that  the  central  massif  of  Dau- 
phine,  with  the  parallel  crystalline  ranges  of  the  Grandes  Rousses  and 
Belledonne,  project  so  markedly  in  a  S.S.W.  direction,  though  the  water- 
shed of  the  Alpine  chain  is  already  beginning  to  curve  towards  the  east- 
ward side  of  a  circle  of  longitude.'  f  These  considerations  have  led  the 
writer  to  suggest  that  this  structure  is  a  record  of  older  disturbances. 
1  These  folds  may  be  due  to  earth  movements  which  are  pre-Triassic,  but 
not  improbably  post- Carboniferous,  in  age.  Certainly  the  deep  sea, 
which,  as  already  pointed  out,  covered  the  greater  part  of  the  E.  Alps 
in  Triassic  times,  appears  to  have  shallowed  rapidly  westwards,  and 
its  coast  in  that  direction  to  have  had  a  general  trend  much  nearer 
N.  and  S.  than  E.  and  W.  The  direction  of  the  ridges  of  older  rock  in 
the  Schwarzwald  and  Vosges  agrees  with  this,  as  does  the  position  and 
direction  of  the  most  important  watershed  in  the  Cevennes — namely,  that 
from  which  the  Allier  and  the  main  stream  of  the  Loire  descend — which 
also  appears  to  be  in  intimate  relation  with  the  whole  series  of  earth 
movements  which  have  affected  DauphineV  %  But  further  study  of  the 
Alps  is  necessary  before  the  difficulties  of  this  problem  can  be  completely 
overcome. 

The  sculpturing  of  a  mountain  region  is  a  subject  which  presents 
fewer  difficulties  than  it  formerly  did.  The  peaks  and  valleys  have  alike 
been  hewn  out  by  Nature's  carving  tools,  by  the  heat  and  the  frost,  the 
rain,  the  stream,  and  the  glacier.  This  action,  doubtless,  has  been  modified 
and  directed  by  the  earth  movements.  Obviously  before  wave  can  batter, 
or  river  furrow,  rocks  must  be  upheaved  from  the  quiet  depths  of  ocean, 
and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  elements.  The  effects  also  of  these 
cannot  fail  to  be  modified  by  the  strike  and  dip  of  the  rock  masses,  by 
the  existence  of  folds  and  faults,  by  the  alternation  of  hard  and  soft 
material.  But  while  valleys  may  be  connected  with  synclinal  folds  or 
anticlinal  fissures,  while  their  direction  may  have  been  affected  by  the 
slope  of  the  rising  ground  or  the  outcrops  of  particular  rocks,  while  they 
may  have  been  guided  or  even  initiated  by  faults,  there  is  no  ground  for 
supposing  that  any  one  valley — not  even  such  a  gorge  as  that  of  the 

*  This  synclinal  trough,  though  less  conspicuous  N.  of  the  line  joining  Meran  and  Bozen,  seems 
traceable  as  far  as  Innsbruck,  and  is  indicated  by  the  outliers  of  Secondary  rock  on  either  side  of 
the  Brenner  railway  N.  of  Sterzing. 

f  See  the  writer's  '  Tyndall  Lectures  '  for  1888  on  the  '  Growth  and  Structure  of  the  Alps,'  in  the 
Alpine  Journal,  vol.  xiv.  p.  106. 

+  Ibid.  p.  107. 


GEOLOGY   OF  THE  ALPS.  xci 

Tamina,  or  of  the  Trient — is  in  any  proper  sense  a  fissure.  Whatever 
cracks  may  have  been  produced  in  the  terrestrial  crust  by  the  strains  of 
earth  movements,  the  forces  of  Nature  have  worked  so  long  and  so  vigo- 
rously on  the  lines  sketched  out  that  they  have  obliterated  them  as  com- 
pletely as  the  tools  of  the  carver  destroy  the  design  pencilled  on  a  piece 
of  wood. 

At  the  present  day  the  subject  of  mountain  sculpture  generally  receives 
full  notice  in  text-books  of  Geology,  and  some  details  in  that  of  the  Alps 
have  been  discussed  by  the  writer  in  three  lectures  published  in  the 
'  Alpine  Journal,'  *  so  that  a  brief  outline  may  suffice.  The  valleys  in  a  hill 
district,  as  a  rule,  may  be  divided  into  valleys  of  dip,  or  those  which  cor- 
respond in  direction  with  the  dip  of  the  strata,  and  valleys  of  strike,  or 
those  which  follow  the  trend  of  the  beds.  The  former,  as  produced  by 
the  more  rapid  streams,  are  commonly  narrower  and  steeper  and  more 
gorge-like  ;  the  latter,  as  excavated  by  rivers  which  have  only  a  slow  fall, 
are  broader,  more  level,  and  enclosed  by  less  abrupt  slopes.  The  form, 
however,  obviously  depends  much  on  the  nature  and  structure  of  the 
rocks,  and  a  traveller,  with  but  a  slight  knowledge  of  geology,  soon  finds 
little  difficulty  in  understanding  the  relation  of  the  course  of  a  river  to  the 
rocks  which  it  traverses.  Thus  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  above  Chur,  and 
that  of  the  Rhone,  above  Martigny,  are,  broadly  speaking,  valleys  of  strike. 
Their  general  direction  is  parallel  with  the  outcropping  edges  or  trough- 
like infolds  of  the  softer  sedimentary  rocks,  and  these  are  modified,  more 
especially  in  the  second  case,  by  irregularities  in  the  outline  of  the  under- 
lying crystalline  masses.  The  rivers  which  traverse  the  sedimentary  zone, 
between  the  Lake  of  Geneva  and  the  course  of  the  I  sere  below  Grenoble, 
as  they  make  their  way  from  their  sources  in  the  mountains  to  the  border- 
ing lowlands,  often  exhibit  very  conspicuously  valleys  of  strike  alternating 
with  valleys  of  dip. 

When  the  Alps  first  began  to  rise  definitely  above  the  sea  their  water- 
shed must  have  been  determined  by  the  highest  ground,  and  with  this 
the  present  one  may  be  roughly  compared.  Hence  in  the  Tyrol  the  cen- 
tral range  may  have  always  been  the  watershed  of  the  chain,  and  may 
thus  indicate  the  zone  in  which  the  uplift  has  been  the  greatest.  But,  as 
a  consequence  either  of  the  combination  of  two  separate  chains  or  of  a 
complication  due  to  the  existence  of  an  earlier  structure,  as  suggested 
above,  the  line  of  watershed  seems  to  run  irregularly  from  the  Oetzthal 
group  along  the  Ortler  group,  and  to  betake  itself  to  follow  a  range  which 
apparently  corresponds  with  the  S.  one  in  the  E.  Alps.  But  this  change 
of  direction,  as  the  writer  has  pointed  out  in  the  lectures  already  men- 
tioned, may  be  more  apparent  than  real,  due  partly  to  removal  by  denud- 
ation of  the  westward  extension  of  the  Dolomite  group,  and  to  complica- 
tions introduced,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  Central  Alps,  by  the 
second  series  of  mountain-making  movements.  The  inference,  at  any 
rate,  seems  legitimate  that  when  the  river  valleys  of  the  Central  Alps  were 
first  defined  the  Oberland  range  can  have  offered  but  little  obstruction  to 
the  northward  flow  of  water,  so  that  this  part  of  Switzerland  must  then 
have  more  closely  resembled  in  its  structure  the  Central  Tyrol.     When 

*  Vol.  xiv.  pp.  38-50,  105  118,  221  235. 


XCll  INTRODUCTION. 

the  former  range  began  to  assume  a  more  grandiose  aspect,  owing  to  the 
later  series  of  disturbances,  it  must  have  been  uplifted  slowly  enough  to 
allow  the  Rhine,  the  Reuss,  and  the  Rhone  to  keep  open  their  channel  of 
exit,  by  sawing  down  into  the  rising  mass. 

Two  remarkable  features  in  the  Alpine  valleys  may  be  briefly  noticed 
before  quitting  this  subject.  One  is  that  occasionally  the  watershed 
between  the  valleys  of  strike,  belonging  to  two  distinct  river  systems,  is  very 
ill  marked.  Notable  examples  are  to  be  found  on  the  Reschen  Scheideck 
between  the  drainage  of  the  Inn  and  the  Etsch,  and  on  the  Toblacher 
plateau,  between  the  Rienz  and  the  Drave.  These  may  be  explained  by 
supposing  that  denudation  has  been  more  active  at  the  head  of  one  of 
the  valleys,  so  that  part  of  the  territory  of  one  of  the  river  systems  has 
been,  so  to  say,  annexed  by  the  other  as  it  has  cut  away  the  rising  ground 
by  which  the  two  basins  were  once  divided.  A  similar  explanation  may 
be  offered  for  the  second  feature,  viz.  that  the  watershed  between  two 
river  systems  not  unfrequently  lies  very  near  one  end  of  an  almost  level 
trough,  which  overlooks  a  steep  descent.  The  most  conspicuous  instance 
of  this  structure  is  presented  by  the  Maloja  Pass.  The  summit  is  a  long 
and  nearly  level  valley  ;  the  watershed,  close  to  the  Kulm,  is  so  faintly 
marked  that  a  cutting,  a  very  few  yards  deep,  would  divert  the  waters  of 
the  nearest  lake  down  the  precipitous  descent  into  the  Val  Bregaglia. 
This  and  similar  structures  may  be  attributed  to  the  more  rapid  erosive 
action  of  the  streams  draining  towards  Italy.  The  original  *  divide ' 
between  the  waters  of  the  Inn  and  of  the  Maira  may  have  been  situated 
as  far  S.  as  Vicosoprano,  so  that  the  streams  from  the  valleys  now  occu- 
pied by  the  Forno  and  Albigna  glaciers  may  once  have  been  received  by 
the  Inn.  On  most  of  the  great  mountain  high  roads  a  comparatively  level 
*  trough,'  exists  at  the  top  of  the  pass,  though  the  structure  generally  is 
not  so  marked  as  in  the  case  of  the  Maloja. 

The  interesting  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Alpine  lakes  is  briefly 
noticed  in  the  next  section,  so  that  it  may  suffice  to  say  that,  in  the 
writer's  opinion,  some  of  the  smaller  tarns  may  be  exceptional  results  of 
the  erosive  action  of  glaciers  ;  some  are  formed  by  moraines,  and  some,  like 
the  Lago  d'  Alleghe,  by  dams  produced  by  bergfalls.  In  many  lakes, 
both  large  and  small,  the  level  of  the  water  is  raised  by  debris,  which 
has  been  thrown  down  either  by  one  of  these  two  causes  or  by  tribu- 
tary streams.  But  it  seems  impossible  to  attribute  the  greater  Alpine 
lakes  to  glacial  erosion,  for  not  only  is  there  no  evidence  that  glaciers 
under  ordinary  circumstances  ever  excavate  basins,  but  also  it  is  clear 
that  in  the  Alps  their  effects  have  been  comparatively  superficial,  and 
of  secondary  importance  on  the  rocks  over  which  they  have  passed. 
These  larger  basins,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  have  been  produced  by 
unequal  movements  in  the  floor  of  valleys,  already  excavated  by  the 
ordinary  processes  of  denudation,  and  are  thus  comparatively  modern 
features  in  the  physical  structure  of  the  Alps.  The  deltas  at  their 
heads  and  the  division  between  the  Lake  of  Thun  and  of  Brienz,  are  of 
course  yet  later  in  date,  and  are  continually  increasing  in  size. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  xcii 

5.   The  Glacial  Period* 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  relative  level  of  the  different  portions  of 
the  Alpine  chain  has  undergone  no  considerable  change  since  the  close 
of  the  Tertiary  Period.  This  latest  portion,  however,  of  the  history  of 
the  Alps  is  not  less  interesting,  for  it  is  marked  by  the  extraordinary 
extension  of  the  glaciers. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  into  any  detail  of  the  evidence  upon 
which  the  present  conclusions  of  geologists  have  been  based,  and  still 
less  to  refer  to  the  prolonged  discussions  to  which  at  every  step  they 
were  subjected — discussions  which  ultimately  served  to  establish  the  new 
theory  upon  more  decisive  proof,  than  if  it  had  been  more  easily  accepted. 

In  the  brief  description  which  is  given  (Art.  XIV.)  of  the  phenomena 
of  existing  glaciers,  it  has  been  shown  that  amongst  other  operations 
they  transport  large  quantities  of  mineral  matter  from  the  upper  ridges  of 
the  Alps  to  the  lower  valleys  ;  that  this  transported  matter  consists 
partly  of  large  blocks,  partly  of  smaller  stones  and  gravel.  It  is  seen 
that  a  portion  of  these  blocks  are  stranded  upon  the  bank  of  the  glacier, 
while  others  are  carried  down  to  its  lower  end,  where,  if  the  shape  of 
the  ground  be  favourable,  and  the  glacier  remain  long  enough  sta- 
tionary, they,  along  with  the  rest  of  the  transported  materials,  enter  into 
the  formation  of  a  terminal  moraine.  Again,  it  is  seen  that  by  the 
passage  of  a  glacier,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  valley  are  subjected  to 
a  peculiar  process  of  smoothing  and  polishing,  which  leaves  its  tokens 
permanently  impressed  on  the  general  form  of  the  rocks,  and  on  the 
condition  of  their  surface.  Finally,  it  appears  that  the  pressure  of  the 
glacier  against  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  valley  reduces  the  rocks  and 
gravel  that  find  their  way  to  the  bottom  partly  to  fine  mud,  and  partly  to 
flattened  pebbles,  scored  by  the  friction  they  have  encountered  in  the 
rocky  bed  of  the  glacier. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  blocks,  sometimes  of  great  dimensions, 
and  composed  of  rock  utterly  different  from  that  of  the  district  in  which 
they  are  found,  are  scattered  through  the  lower  parts  of  the  main  valleys 
of  the  Alps,  and  over  the  low  country  at  their  base.  Such  blocks,  with 
their  edges  still  fresh,  and  without  trace  of  violent  transport,  are  seen 
resting  on  steep  slopes.  Further  enquiry  showed  that  in  the  places  where 
these  blocks  were  deposited,  the  rock  in  situ  is  often  rounded  and 
grooved — nay,  even,  that  when  hard  enough,  it  has  preserved  the  finer 
striae  and  polish  which  we  see  under  the  beds  of  existing  glaciers.  One 
after  another  the  moraines,  the  glacial  mud,  and  the  scored  pebbles  were 
discovered  at  long  distances  from  the  present  limits  of  the  glaciers,  but 
associated  with  the  distribution  of  the  erratic  blocks  ;  and  these  appear- 
ances were  shown  not  to  be  confined  to  the  Alps,  but  to  be  equally  distinct 
in  other  mountain  districts,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  British  islands,  during 
the  same  recent  geological  period. 

Though  it  was  sustained  by  able  advocates,  foremost  amongst  whom 
must  be  reckoned  the  late  M.  Charpentier,  the  theory  which  accounted 
for  the  dispersion  of  the  erratic  blocks  by  the  agency  of  extinct  glaciei  > 

*  This  section  is  retained  with  little  change  from  the  first  edition. 


XC1V  INTRODUCTION. 

encountered  much  opposition.  It  has  perhaps  suffered  more  from  the 
exaggerations  of  some  of  its  supporters  than  from  the  criticism  of  its 
opponents.  At  present  the  original  controversy  is  nearly  set  at  rest.  The 
absolute  identity  of  the  operations  of  existing  glaciers  with  the  facts 
traceable  throughout  the  Alps,  and  other  mountain  countries,  has  over- 
come the  reluctance  of  many  eminent  geologists  to  admit  the  new  theory, 
and  the  former  extension  of  glaciers  over  a  wide  area  in  the  Alps,  and 
elsewhere,  is  now  one  of  the  admitted  data  of  geological  science. 

The  evidence  is  in  some  respects  more  complete  and  convincing  on  the 
southern  than  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Alps  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
if  the  phenomena  had  been  sooner  studied  in  that  region,  the  period  of 
resistance  to  the  new  theory  would  have  been  abridged.  It  has  been 
fully  proved  that  nearly  all  the  secondary  valleys  that  open  into  the 
valley  of  the  Po  were  traversed  by  great  glaciers  which  extended  down 
as  far  as  the  opening  of  the  valley,  and  in  some  instances,  as  already 
mentioned,  were  protruded  into  the  plain. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  Alps  the  area  occupied  by  the  ancient  glaciers 
was  even  more  extensive.  The  glacier  of  the  Rhone,  with  a  vast  number 
of  affluents  poured  into  it  from  the  tributary  valleys  of  the  Pennine  and 
Bernese  Alps,  not  only  filled  the  basin  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  but 
also  covered  a  great  portion  of  the  plain  of  Switzerland,  and  reached  to  a 
considerable  height  on  the  flanks  of  the  Jura. 

A  map  showing  the  distribution  of  the  erratic  blocks  in  Switzerland 
has  been  published  by  M.  Escher  von  der  Linth  ;  a  similar  map,  including 
the  Alps  of  Lombardy  and  a  part  of  Piedmont,  accompanies  a  memoir 
by  M.  Omboni  in  the  2nd  volume  of  '  Atti  della  Societa  Italiana  di  Scienze 
Naturali.' 

In  the  3rd  volume  of  the  '  Acts  '  of  the  same  society,  M.  G.  de  Mortillet 
has  published  a  more  complete  map  of  the  ancient  glaciers  of  the  Italian 
side  of  the  Alps,  with  an  interesting  memoir,  in  which  he  discusses  at 
length  various  questions  to  which  in  this  brief  essay  it  is  impossible  to 
do  justice.  The  latest  speculations  upon  the  part  played  by  glaciers  in 
the  past  history  of  the  Alps  lead  to  conclusions  that  have  not  as  yet 
gained  the  general  agreement  of  geologists.  M.  de  Mortillet,  M.  Gas- 
taldi,  and  other  distinguished  Italian  geologists  hold  that  during  the 
period  preceding  the  utmost  extension  of  the  glaciers,  the  Italian  lakes 
were  filled  with  the  waterworn  materials  that  constitute  the  so  called 
ancient  alluvium,  and  that  the  cavities  so  filled  were  scooped  out  by  the 
action  of  the  glaciers  when  they  descended  into  the  lake  basins.  Other 
theorists,  and  among  them  the  eminent  English  geologist,  Sir  A.  Ramsay, 
have  gone  further  still,  and  have  sought  to  prove  that  the  ancient  glaciers 
were  competent  not  only  to  clear  out  the  bed  of  a  lake,  supposing  it  filled 
with  alluvium,  but  to  excavate  the  rock-basin  itself.  When  we  recollect 
the  depth  of  the  Italian  lakes,  which  vary  from  900  feet  in  the  Lake  of 
Lugano  to  over  2,600  feet  in  the  Lago  Maggiore,  we  feel  that  more 
cogent  evidence  than  any  yet  produced  is  required  before  we  can  admit 
the  probability  of  even  the  more  moderate  of  these  hypotheses.  The 
subject  is  interesting  from  its  novelty  as  well  as  its  geological  importance  ; 
but,  pending  its  further  discussion,  we  concur  in  the  objections  to  the 
new   theories   urged   by  Mr.  Ball  in  the   'Philosophical   Magazine'  for 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE  ALPS.  XCV 

February  and  December  1863.*  On  somewhat  similar  grounds  we  can 
give  no  credence  to  the  supposed  operation  of  glaciers  in  the  excavation 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  while  we  admit  the  probability  that  the  action 
of  ice  has,  along  with  other  agents,  had  a  large  share  in  modifying  the 
details,  and  shaping  the  minuter  features,  of  the  surface  of  the  Alpine 
valleys. 

Notwithstanding  the  labour  that  has  been  bestowed  by  geologists  upon 
the  study  of  the  glacial  period  in  the  Alps,  there  remain  many  branches 
of  enquiry  which  are  far  from  being  exhausted.  One  of  these  relates  to 
the  probable  oscillations  in  the  extent  of  the  glaciers.  The  great  moraines 
which  are  so  remarkable  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Alps  prove  that  the  glaciers 
must  have  remained  for  a  long  period  at  or  about  the  limit  which  they 
indicate,  and  that  this  limit  has  not  since  been  surpassed ;  but  this  does 
not  imply  that  at  an  earlier  date  the  great  ice  streams  may  not  have 
flowed  further  into  the  plain,  without  remaining  long  enough  to  leave 
such  moraines  as  would  survive  to  the  present  period.  One  of  the  diffi- 
culties found  in  studying  the  glacial  phenomena  in  that  region  arises 
from  the  fact  that  during  the  period  of  the  retirement  of  the  glaciers,  and 
since  that  time,  the  materials  of  the  ancient  moraines  have  been  con- 
stantly attacked  by  torrents,  sometimes  transported  to  a  distance,  and 
partially  stratified.  The  region  of  ancient  moraines  along  the  southern 
base  of  the  Lombard  Alps  is  extremely  interesting  from  its  diversified 
scenery,  and  the  small  lakes  formed  by  the  mounds  of  moraine  matter 
add  much  to  its  beauty  ;  but  laborious  and  patient  study  is  necessary  for 
those  who  would  unravel  the  phenomena. 

The  glacial  deposits  in  some  valleys  show  that  the  onward  movement 
of  the  great  ice-stream  was  by  no  means  uniform.  One  of  the  most 
notable,  and  in  some  ways  most  perplexing,  of  these  indications  is 
afforded  in  the  valley  of  the  Limmat.  A  morainic  deposit  occurs  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  Uetliberg  overlain  by  a  coarse  gravel,  called  the 
'  locherige  Nagelfluh,'  to  distinguish  it  from  the  well  known  conglomerate 
of  earlier  Tertiary  age.  But  that  pebble-bed  descends  to  near  the  level 
of  the  Limmat  at  Baden,  fifteen  miles  below  Zurich.  In  the  intervening 
district  another  extensive  morainic  deposit,  newer  than  it,  occurs,  about 
and  at  some  height  above  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  and  this  is  followed  by 
the  stratified  river  gravels  forming  the  bed  of  the  valley  to  the  west  of 
the  town.  But  the  ice  must  have  advanced  over  this  also  ;  for,  near  Kil- 
wangen,  about  four  miles  above  Baden,  moraine  is  seen  resting  upon  it. 
Of  these  three  records  of  the  actual  presence  of  ice  the  second  is  sup- 
posed to  mark  the  epoch  when  the  Alpine  glaciers  reached  the  Jura  and 
attained  their  greatest  extension. 

Another  branch  of  enquiry  connected  with  the  same  subject  regards 
the  effects  of  the  glacial  period  in  the  Alps  upon  animal  and  vegetable 
life.  It  is  probable  that  the  period  of  the  utmost  extension  of  the 
glaciers  was  unfavourable  to  most  forms  of  life,  and  that  the  present  fauna 
and  flora  began  to  appear  on  the  flanks  of  the  chain  only  as  the  gla 
retired  to  the  upper  valleys.  Among  the  mammalia  whose  remains 
belong  to  that  period  are  a  few  now  extinct  species.    There  is  nothing  to 

*  See  a  further  paper  by  Mr.  Hall,  Geol.  Mag.  1871,  p.  359 '»  also  pipers   l«y    Prof,    Monney, 
.  Journ.  Geol.  Sac.  1871,  p.  312,  1873,  p.  382,  1874,  p.  479. 


XCVl  INTRODUCTION. 

show  that  the  new  inhabitants  appeared  simultaneously,  but  some  reason 
to  hold  the  contrary  opinion.  The  fish,  insects,  and  mollusca  that  in- 
habit the  Alpine  lakes  could  have  made  their  appearance  only  after  these 
were  clear  of  ice,  a  period  which  must  be  separated  by  a  long  interval 
from  the  commencement  of  the  retirement  of  the  glaciers. 

On  the  questions  concerning  the  antiquity  of  man,  which  now  so 
much  interest  geologists,  the  glacial  deposits  of  the  Alps  have  hitherto 
been  silent,  and  we  cannot  determine  whether  the  earliest  human  in- 
habitants witnessed  the  presence  of  great  glaciers  in  the  lower  valleys  of 
this  mountain  chain.* 

6.  Geological  Literature  and  Maps. 

The  Alps  have  in  recent  years  loomed  large  in  geological  literature. 
It  would  be  a  laborious  task  to  draw  up  anything  like  a  complete  list 
even  of  the  books  and  papers  which  are  restricted  to  questions  of  Alpine 
Geology,  and,  if  accomplished,  it  would  be  too  long  for  publication  in 
these  pages.  Hence  it  must  suffice  to  enumerate  a  few  of  the  larger 
books  which  deal  with  the  geology  of  the  Alps,  or  of  some  important 
district,  and  to  mention  the  official  publications  or  periodicals  in  which 
valuable  information  is  likely  to  be  found.  The  list  is  restricted,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  to  books  published  within  about  the  past  thirty 
years,  because  although  the  older  books  often  contain  valuable  material 
they  have  been  in  part  superseded  by  the  rapid  advance  made  during 
that  time  by  some  departments  of  natural  science. 

i.  Books. 

Baretti  {M.).  Geologia  della  provincia  di  Torino.  With  Atlas.  Turin,  1893. 
Diener  (C).     Der  Gebirgsbau  der  West-Alpen.      Prague,  Vienna,  and  Leipzig, 

1891. 
Favre  {A.).     Recherches  Geologiques  dans  les  Parties  de  la  Savoie,  du  Piemontet 

de  la  Suisse  Voisines  du  Mont-Blanc.     3  vols.    With  Atlas.    Paris,  1867. 
Fraas  [E.).     Scenerie  der  Alpen.     Leipzig,  1892. 
Freeh  (F.).     Die  Karnischen  Alpen.     Halle,  1892. 
Giimbel  ( C.  W. ).     Geognostische  Beschreibung  des  bayerischen  Alpengebirges. 

Gotha,  1 86 1. 
Heer  (O.).     Die  Urwelt  der  Schweiz.     Zurich,  1st  edition,  1865;  2nd  enlarged 

edition,  1879.     The  English  translation,  2  vols.  1876,  is  entitled  'The 

Primaeval  World  of  Switzerland,'  edited  by  James  Heywood. 
Helm  {A.).    Untersuchungen  liber  den  Mechanismus  der  Gebirgsbildung.    2  vols. 

and  Atlas.     Basel,  1878. 
,,       Handbuch  der  Gletscherkunde.     Stuttgart,  1885. 
Lory  (C).    Description  Geologique  du  Dauphine.     Paris  and  Grenoble,  1860-64. 

*  Here  followed,  in  previous  editions,  an  account  of  the  geological  divisions  of  the  entire  chain 
of  the  Alps.  This  section  would  have  required  searching  revision,  if  not  recasting,  and  the  sub- 
ject is  one  which  cannot  be  satisfactorily  treated  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  Alpine 
Geology.  Accordingly  it  has  been  thought  best  to  omit  it  altogether,  except  so  far  as  the  matter 
has  been  dealt  with  in  earlier  parts  of  tbis  Article.  I  may,  however,  refer  to  the  suggestive  papers 
on  Alpine  geology  by  Professor  Rothpletz.  His  writings  andthose  of  Mrs.  Gordon  (.Miss  Ogilvie) 
show  that  the  structure  of  the  Dolomite  region  is  much  less  simple  than  geologists  in  general  have 
supposed,  and  that  in  it  also  folding  and  faulting,  especially  by  overthrusting,  have  produced 
very  marked  effects. — T.  G. .  B. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS.  xcvii 

Mojsisovics  (E.  von).     Die  Dolomit-Riffe  von  Siidtirol  und  Venetiens.     Vienna, 

1879. 
RichtJwfen   [F.    von).     Geognostische  Beschreibung   der   Umgegend   von    Pre- 

dazzo,  &c.     Gotha,  i860. 
Studer  (B.).     Geologie  der  Schweiz.    2  vols.     Bern  and  Zurich,  1851-53. 
Suess  {£.).     Die  Entstehung  der  Alpen.     Vienna,  1875.     (See  also  references  in 

*  Das  Antlitz  der  Erde.') 
Zaccagna  (D.).     Sulla  Geologia  delle  Alpi  Occidentali  (article  in  the  «  Bollettino 

del  Reale  Comitato  d'  Italia,'  1887). 

A  useful  book  in  its  way  is  the  '  Livret-Guide  Geologique  dans  le 
Jura  et  les  Alpes  de  la  Suisse'  (Lausanne,  1894),  published  to  help  the 
members  of  the  6th  International  Geological  Congress  in  their  scientific 
excursions  in  the  Jura  and  Swiss  Alps.  It  has  maps  and  plates,  so  that 
it  is  a  very  handy  geological  guide  for  Swiss  travellers. 

2.  Official  Publications. 

Austria. — K.K.  Geologische  Reichsanstalt. 

Abhandlungen.     Vienna.     From  1852  onwards. 

Jahrbuch.  ,,  ,,       1850        ,, 

Fra?ice. — Bulletin  des  Services  de  la  Carte  Geologique  dela  France.     From  1889. 
Italy. — Reale  Comitato  Geologico  d'  Italia  ('  Bollettino').     From  1870. 
Switzerland. — Beitrage  zur  geologischen  Karte  der  Schweiz.    From  1864  onwards. 

3.  Publications  of  Scientific  Societies  in  which  Papers  of  Importance 
have  appeared. 

Academie  des  Sciences  de  i'lnstitut  de  France  ('  Comptes  Rendus'). 

Accademia  Reale  dei  Lincei  ('  Atti '). 

Annales  des  Mines.     Paris. 

Deutsche  Geologische  Gesellschaft  ('  Zeitschrift '). 

Geological  Society  of  London  (*  Quarterly  Journal '). 

Kaiserliche  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  (Vienna)  (*  Sitzungsberichte '). 

Konigliche  Bayerische  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  ('Sitzungsberichte'). 

Societa  Geologica  Italiana  ('  Bollettino'). 

Societe  Geologique  de  France  ('  Bulletin  '). 

A  summary  of  the  papers  dealing  with  Alpine  Geology  by  MM.  Favre 
and  Schardt  is  now  printed  in  'Ecloga?  Geological  Helvetica? '  (the 
periodical  of  the  Swiss  Geological  Society). 

Geological  papers  occasionally  appear  in  the  publications  of  the  French, 
German  and  Austrian,  Italian,  Swiss,  and  other  foreign  Alpine  Clubs  and 
Societies,  but  there  are  few  in  that  of  the  English  Alpine  Club. 

4.  Maps. 

The  best  and  most  recent  geological  map  of  the  whole  chain  of  the 
Alps  is  that  by  F.  Noe,  entitled  'Geologische  Uebersichtskarte  der 
Alpen/     ttoWt™-     Vienna,  1890. 

The  following  are  geological  maps  of  more  limited  regions: — 


XCV111  INTRODUCTION. 

Austria. — Franz  Ritter  von  Hauer.  Geologische  Uebersichtskarte  der  Oester- 
reichisch-Ungarischen  Monarchic  57^00-  Vienna,  1867-1871. 
Two  sheets,  which  include  the  greater  part  of  the  Eastern  Alps.  This 
is  the  map  of  the  Austro- Hungarian  Geological  Survey. 

E.  Mojsisovics  v,  Mojsvar. — Geologische  Uebersichtskarte  der  Tiro- 
lisch-Venetianischen  Hochlander  zwischen  Etsch  und  Piave.  750m)» 
6  sheets.     Vienna,  1878. 

France. — Carte  Geologique  detaillee  de  la  France.  eoJoo  (*n  Process  of  publi- 
cation, but  only  a  few  of  the  Alpine  sheets  have  as  yet  been  issued). 

Carte  Geologique  de  la  France.  100^oo5.  This  includes  the  French 
part  of  the  chain  and  somewhat  more. 

G.  Vasseur  and  L.  Carez.  Carte  Geologique  Generate  de  la  France. 
soo^oq.  This  map  was  completed  about  three  years  ago,  and  includes  the 
French  part  of  the  chain  with  the  adjacent  territory. 

Italy. — Carta  Geologica  dTtalia.  toooooo-  Rome,  1889.  This  map  includes 
considerably  more  than  the  Alps  of  Italy,  as  well  as  a  bit  of  the  east 
side  of  the  Adriatic. 

A  geological  map  of  the  Italian  kingdom,  on  a  scale  of  To(jooo>  *s  m 
course  of  publication,  but  the  Alpine  sheets  have  not  yet  appeared. 

Switzerland. — Geologische  Karte  der  Schweiz.     y^yoo,  25  sneets-      1862-1888. 

To  these  may  be  added,  as  dealing  with  a  single  point  in  geology — 

A.  Favre — Carte  du  Phenomene  Erratique  et  des  Anciens  Glaciers  du  Versant 
Nord  des  Alpes  Suisses,  et  de  la  Chaine  du  Mont-Blanc.  250000 
(published  by  the  Swiss  Geological  Survey).     4  sheets.      1884. 


Art.  XIX. — Alpine  Zoology.* 

The  zoology  of  the  Alps  is  replete  with  many  points  of  interest. 
Although  some  of  the  more  remarbable  animals  have  passed  away  ; 
although  the  gigantic  urus  {Bos  primigenius\  which  flourished  in  the 
forests  of  Mid-Switzerland  during  the  prehistoric  human  period,  and 
perhaps  gave  its  name  to  the  Canton  of  Uri,  is  now  extinct  ;  although  the 
marsh  hog  (Sus  scrofa palustris),  which  survived  in  the  Lake  habitations, 
exists  no  longer,  having  given  place  to  the  modified  wild  boar  and 
domestic  hog,  that  afford  sport  and  food  to  the  present  population,  yet 
the  mountains  at  a  higher  elevation,  and  far  above  the  snow  line,  afford 
examples  of  the  Alpine  fauna,  which,  as  might  a  priori  have  been  expected , 
represents  in  many  important  points  the  faunas  of  other  and  still  less 
accessible  regions.  We  purpose  briefly  to  recapitulate  the  more  striking 
forms,  and  to  comment  on  their  vertical  distribution. 

j.  Alpiiie  Mammals. — The  order  Carnivora  is  well  represented  in 
Switzerland.  The  lynx  (Felis  lynx)  and  the  wild  cat  (F.  catus)  are  to 
be  found  at  high  elevations  in  the  Alps.  The  former,  in  the  Pyrenees, 
is  said  to  reach  the  vertical  height  of  11,300  feet;  its  '  bathymetrical' 
distribution  in  the  Alps  is  unrecorded.  Up  to  a  thousand  feet  are  found 
the  marten  {Mustela  foina\  the  weasel  (Putorius  vulgaris),    and  the 

•  This  article  was  originally  written  by  Mr.  C.  Carter  Blake.  It  has  been  carefully  revised  by 
Dr.  P.  L.  Sclater,  F.R.S.,  Secretary  of  the  Zoological  Society,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Bou- 
lenger  and  of  Prof.  Bell.     Mr.  W.  Warde  Fowler  has  contributed  the  Section  on  '  Alpine  Birds.' 


ALPINE  ZOOLOGY.  xcix 

polecat  (P.fcetidus).  The  stoat  or  ermine  (P.  crminea)  reaches  a  high er 
elevation  than  any  other  Alpine  carnivore  ;  it  is  found  at  the  height  of 
10,000  feet.  Next  beneath  it,  at  9,000  feet,  lives  the  brown  bear  (Ursus 
arctos),  which,  however,  is  now  getting  very  scarce,  except  in  one  or  two 
remote  districts  of  the  Alps.  The  fox  {Cams  vulpes)  and  the  badger 
(Meles  taxus)  occur  on  the  lower  slopes. 

The  order  of  Ungulates  exhibits  many  interesting  examples.  In  the 
whole  world,  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Carpathians,  the  Albanian 
mountains,  and  the  Caucasus  are  the  sole  spots  where  the  chamois,  or 
'  Gemse  '  {Rupricapra  tragus),  still  survives,  the  solitary  representative  of 
the  group  of  mountain-antelopes  in  Europe.  The  chamois  ranges  to  an 
elevation  of  12,000  feet.  It  has  so  long  been  selected  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Alpine  fauna  that  any  comment  on  the  most  striking  and 
picturesque  animal  in  the  Alps  is  superfluous,  and  a  general  reference  to 
the  monograph  *  on  it  written  by  F.  C.  Keller  ('  Die  Gemse,5  Klagenfurt, 
1887)  is  all  that  is  necessary.  It  is  rarely  seen  in  the  more  frequented 
parts  of  the  Swiss  mountains,  and  can  be  best  studied  in  the  Eastern 
Graians  and  the  Maritime  Alps,  in  both  of  which  districts  it  is  carefully 
preserved  for  hunting  purposes  by  order  of  the  late  and  present  Kings  of 
Italy.  In  Switzerland  chamois  are  most  common  in  the  less  known  parts 
of  the  Grisons.  The  goats  are  represented  by  the  ibex,  bouquetin,  or 
steinbock  (Capra  ibex).  The  horns  of  the  male  bouquetin  are  strong, 
thick,  and  subquadrangular,  frequently  extending  to  a  length  of  several 
feet  ;  those  of  the  female  are  much  smaller.  In  Switzerland  the  steinbock 
was  rapidly  disappearing  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  last 
authenticated  cases  of  its  occurrence  in  the  Swiss  Alps  were  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Arolla  about  1830- 1840.  They  exist  in  numbers  only  in  the 
Eastern  Graians  (Cogne),  where  they  are  preserved  by  the  King  of  Italy, 
whose  father  purchased  all  the  hunting  rights  in  these  districts  from  1856 
onwards.  The  herd  now  numbers  about  300.  Attempts  to  reintroduce 
the  steinbock  into  the  Grisons  and  Eastern  Alps,  by  means  of  the 
importation  of  specimens  from  the  E.  Graians,  have  not  been  attended 
by  success.  Yet  the  steinbock  was  once  far  more  common.  Its  remains 
are  found  in  the  Swiss  Lake  dwellings  ;  the  arms  of  the  Grey  League  of 
Rjetia  (from  1650  at  least,  and  probably  from  a  far  earlier  date),  and  of 
the  city  of  Chur  (from  1466),  the  names  of  the  Col  and  Dents  des  Bou- 
quetins, near  Arolla,  and  those  of  the  well  known  Hotels  Steinbock  at 
Chur  and  at  Lauterbrunnen  all  serve  to  show  that  the  steinbock  was 
once  no  rare  phenomenon  in  the  Swiss  Alps.f  An  allied  wild  goat  is 
found  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  other  mountains  of  Spain,  the  Pyrenean  tur 
Capra  pyrenaica  X)  \  other  wild  goats  are  found  in  Crete,  and  in  th<- 
Caucasus. 

The  deer  of  Switzerland  belong  to  the  South  German  forms — the  red 
deer  (Cervus  elaphus)  and  the  roebuck  (Capreolus  caprcea).  Neit ho- 
of these  ranges  to  so  great  an  elevation  in  the  Alps  as  the  chamois  or  the 

•  See  a  notice  of  this  book  in  the  Alpine  Journal,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  3447- 

t  See  Dr.  Girtanner's  monograph,   Der  Alpensteinbock  (Treves,   1878),   of  which  an  Italian 
translation  appeared   in  the   BolUttino  del  Club  Alpino  Italiano,  1870,  pp.  4x2-461.     A  short 
article  on  bouquetins  by  Mr.  Coolidge  in  the  Alpine  Journal,  vol.  xvii.  pp.  193  6  (an  addition 
.76),  is  followed  by  a  detailed  list  of  allusions  and  articles  relating  to  bouquetins. 
%  See  Mr.  Buxton's  Short  Stalks,  First  Series,  chap.  \  ii. 

f* 


C  INTRODUCTION. 

ibex,  the  firmer  feet  and  coarser  digestive  apparatus  of  the  two  latter 
animals  enabling  them  to  ascend  to  higher  vertical  zones,  and  to  subsist 
on  a  less  nutritive  diet  than  the  cervine  ruminants.  The  hog  of  Switzer- 
land is  of  the  same  race  as  the  wild  boar  of  France  and  Germany. 

2.  The  Chiroptera,  or  bats,  of  the  Alps  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  moun- 
tains of  inferior  height,  and  do  not  ascend  above  the  snow  line.  The 
ordinary  Pipistrelle  bat  ( Vesperugo  pipislrelhis),  the  noctule  ( V.  noctula), 
thebarbastelle  (Synotus  barbastellus),  the  small  horseshoe  bat  (Rhi?iolophus 
hipposideros),  the  great  horseshoe  bat  (R.  ferrum  equinum\  Natterer's  bat 
( Vespertilio  nattereri),  and  the  large-eared  bat  (Plecotus  auritus)  belong- 
to  the  Alpine  fauna.  It  is  stated  that  other  species  have  been  found,  but 
according  to  F.  von  Tschudi  they  are  of  less  frequent  occurrence  than 
the  species  named  above. 

3.  The  Alpine  Insectivora  are  all  of  a  characteristically  European  type. 
The  hedgehog  (Erinacens  europcens),  the  Alpine  shrew  (Sorex  alpinus), 
and  the  water  shrew  {Crossopus  fodiens)  are  Alpine  forms.  The  white- 
toothed  shrew  (Cocidura  leucodon),  a  beautiful  species,  of  which  the  back 
is  reddish  brown  and  the  belly  white,  is  also  frequently  met  with.  Besides 
these  the  mole  ( Talpa  europcsa)  is  common,  and  is  even  found  in  places, 
like  the  Urseren  valley,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  rocky  ground 
in  which  the  animal  cannot  subsist. 

4.  The  Rodentia  of  the  Alps  are  not  numerous.  The  marmot,  '  Murmel- 
thier '  or  (in  patois) i  Munk J  (Arctomys  marmotta),  is  to  be  found  in  its  small 
burrows  up  to  the  snow  line  ;  it  is  persecuted  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  (con- 
sidered a  great  delicacy  by  the  Alpine  folk)  by  hunters,  who  sell  its  fat 
at  a  high  price  as  a  remedial  agent.  Several  kinds  of  campagnol 
(Arvicola)  occur  in  the  Alps,  amongst  which  is  the  snow  mouse  (A. 
nivalis),  a  peculiar  species,  first  discovered  on  the  Faulhorn  by  Martins 
and  Bfavais  in  1841.  The  mountain  hare  {Lepus  variabilis)  is  also  found 
in  the  Alps  ;  the  same  species  extends  from  the  55th  parallel  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere  northward  to  the  Arctic  circle. 

5.  Alpine  Birds. — The  distribution  of  birds  in  the  Alps  is  peculiarly 
interesting  owing  to  the  great  variety  of  elevation,  and  therefore  also  of 
food,  temperature,  and  cover.  The  mountainous  district  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  three  successive  regions  of  elevation,  each  with  its 
characteristic  avifauna. 

(1)  The  region  of  the  valleys  and  lakes,  with  the  slopes  immediately 
above  them  up  to  3,000  ft.  Here  the  species  are  numerous,  and  in  great 
part  identical  with  those  of  southern  England.  Some  striking  differences, 
however,  will  be  noticed  at  once.  The  black  redstart  is  perhaps  the 
most  abundant  bird,  and  plays  for  the  Swiss  peasant  the  part  of  our 
robin  ;  our  pied  wagtail  is  replaced  by  the  white  wagtail  (Motacilla 
alba)  ;  the  willow  warbler,  so  abundant  with  us,  is  rarely  heard,  while 
Bonelli's  warbler  is  abundant  on  all  wooded  slopes.  The  rook  is  seldom 
to  be  found,  while  the  crow  is  abundant  and  gregarious.  Of  species 
rarely  or  never  met  with  in  England  may  be  mentioned  the  serin  finch, 
the  crag  martin,  the  Alpine  swift  (which  breeds  in  the  tower  of  the 
Munster  at  Bern),  the  meadow  bunting  (Emberiza  cia\  and  the  marsh 
warbler  (Acrocephalus  palustris),  which  here  seems  to  take  the  place  of 
our  common  sedge  warbler.     Ducks,  sandpipers,  and  other  water-loving 


ALPINE  ZOOLOGY.  ci 

birds  are  rarely  met  with  in  summer;  but  the  dipper  is  common/ and  on 
the  lakes  the  black-headed  and  common  "gulls  may  be  seen,  as  well  as 
the  black  and  common  terns.  The  white-tailed  eagle,^he'os]3fcey<  and 
the  black  kite  are  often  seen  on  or  near  the  great* lakes.   * 

(2)  On  ascending  to  the  middle  region  (3,000  to  6,000  ft.)  we  find  on  its 
pastures  and  in  its  forests  a  comparatively  new  avifauna,  though  in 
summer  some  species  are  common  to  this  and  the  lower  region.  This  is 
the  home  of  the  woodpeckers  ;  besides  our  three  English  species  we 
have  here  in  the  pine  woods  the  great  black  woodpecker  and  the  rarer 
three-toed  woodpecker  (Picus  tridactylus),  while  among  deciduous 
trees  the  grey  woodpecker  (P.  canas)  occurs.  The  pines  are  full  of 
titmice,  including  the  crested  titmouse,  which  is  hardly  less  common 
than  the  other  species.  Nutcrackers  and  jays  are  here  found  in  summer 
up  to  6,000  ft.,  but  descend  to  a  lower  level  in  autumn.  With  these  are 
crossbills,  robins,  nuthatches,  and,  in  sunny  spots,  siskins  and  the 
interesting  citril  finch  (Chrysomitris  citrinelld).  Of  the  grouse  kind 
the  capercaillie,  the  black  grouse,  and  the  hazel  grouse  are  met  with  ; 
but  these  seem  to  be  getting  rarer  in  the  Central  Alps.  Owls,  including 
Tengmalm's  owl  and  the  great  eagle  owl,  are  not  uncommon,  but  are 
seldom  seen  by  travellers. 

(3)  The  third  region  includes  the  highest  pastures,  which  the  cattle  do 
not  reach  till  mid- July,  and  the  desolate  tract  of  rock  and  snow  above  tJiem. 
Here  the  species  are  fewer,  but  of  great  interest.  On  the  pastures  breed 
the  Alpine  accentor  and  Alpine  pipit  (Anthus  spi?ioletta\  the  ring  ouzel, 
and  the  mealy  redpoll.  Still  higher  may  be  found  the  beautiful  snow 
finch,  which  builds  where  it  can  on  human  habitations,  as  at  the  Furka 
and  the  St.  Gotthard,  and  \  packs '  in  late  summer  in  large  flocks.  The 
partridge  of  this  region  is  the  so  called  Greek  redleg  (Caccabis  saxatilis, 
or  Steinhuhn) ;  the  grouse  is  the  common  ptarmigan  {Schneehuhri), 
which  in  summer  is  found  at  great  altitudes,  and  even  on  the  summit  of 
Monte  Rosa.  On  rocks  above  glaciers  (such  as  the  Aletsch)  the  moun- 
taineer may  look  out  for  the  red-winged  wall-creeper  (Tichodroma 
muraria\  which  is  also  found  at  lower  elevations.  Perhaps  the  most 
characteristic  bird  of  the  mountains  is  the  Alpine  chough,  which  breeds 
in  rocks  at  8,000  ft.  and  higher  ;  beautiful  as  it  is  in  form  and  flight,  it 
shares  here,  with  its  relative  the  raven,  the  reputation  of  being  a  bird  of 
ill  omen,  and  is  apt  to  appear  over  the  precipices  when  bad  weather  is  at 
hand,  and  when  the  climber  is  involved  in  difficulties.  The  birds  of  prey 
are  hardly  so  numerous  here  as  might  be  expected  ;  the  great  bearded 
vulture  (Ldmmergeier)  is  fast  becoming  extinct  in  Switzerland,  and  the 
golden  eagle  is  rare. 

The  above  account  of  the  distribution  refers  to  the  summer  only  ;  but 
it  should  be  added  that  the  movements  of  Alpine  birds  in  spring  and 
autumn  offer  a  very  interesting  study.  For  further  information  the  reader 
is  referred  to  papers  in  the  *  Ibis !  (1887  and  1891),  by  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  and  Mr.  Scott  Wilson,  and  to  two  chapters  in  'A  Year  with 
the  Birds,'  by  W.  Warde  Fowler.     (W.  W.  F.) 

6.  Alpine  Reptiles  and  Batrachians. — The  common  frog  (Rana  Urn- 
poraria)  and  the  common  lizard  (Lacerta  Trivipara)  are  found  at  the 
height  of  nearly  10,000  feet,  the  Alpine  newt  (Afotgc  alpestris)  and  the 


Cll  INTRODUCTION. 

viper',  ('Vcpera,  btrusy  &  nearly  9,000  feet,  the  common  toad  (Bufo 
vplgqris) fAn4  &5  £>\oy-ypor*i\*{Anguisfragilis)  at  7,000  feet,  and  the 
Cprrjnjarj  «4ake  {.Tropidopotyis*  natrix)  at  5,000  feet.  All  these  species, 
howevef,  are  also  met  with,  at  least  locally,  in  the  plain.  One  species  only 
can  be  considered  as  exclusively  Alpine,  the  black  salamander  {Sala- 
mandra  atra\  which  occurs  at  between  2,500  and  10,000  feet.  On  the 
southern  aspect  of  the  Alps  a  second  species  of  viper  ( Vipera  aspis) 
ascends  to  6,500  feet. 

7.  Alpine  Fishes. — Few  fishes  are  found  at  great  altitudes.  These  are 
the  minnow  {Leuciscus  phaxinus)  to  8,000  feet,  miller's  thumb  {Cottus 
gobio)  to  7,000  feet,  the  trout  {Salmo  fario)  to,  6,500  feet,  the  loach 
{Cobitis  barbatuld)  to  5,500  feet,  and  the  grayling  (Thymallus  vexillifef) 
to  4,500  feet.  The  occurrence  of  other  fishes,  such  as  the  burbot  {Lota 
vulgaris)  at  5,500  feet,  the  rudd  {Leuciscus  erythropthalmus)  at  6,000 
feet,  the  perch  {Perca  fluviatilis\  the  carp  {Cyprinus  carpio),  and  the 
tench  {Tinea  vulgaris)  at  from  4,000  to  5,000  feet,  is  probably  the 
result  of  importation  from  lower  altitudes.  The  presence  of  trout  in 
the  Sgrischus  lake  in  the  Fex  glen,  above  Sils,  in  the  Upper  Engadine, 
at  a  height  of  8,600  feet,  is  also  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  human  agency. 

8.  Lnvertebrata. — Many  of  the  numerous  groups  of  Invertebrates 
attain  high  altitudes  in  the  Alps,  but  when  application  is  made  for 
definite  information  it  is  astonishing  to  find  how  small  our  knowledge  of 
the  Alpine  invertebrate  fauna  is.  It  is,  therefore,  certain  that  travellers 
who  collect  specimens  at  accurately  ascertained  heights  will  aid  the 
progress  of  natural  science.  What  is  known  is  of  much  interest.  Mr. 
A.  E.  Craven,  in  1888,  took,  near  Zermatt,  Helix  harpa,  a  snail  other- 
wise known  only  from  South  America,  Lapland,  and  Amurland.  Vitrina 
diaphana,  another  snail  which  is  common  enough  all  over  France  and 
Germany,  ranges  as  high  as  7,500  feet.  Protective  colouring  is  exhibited 
by  the  high -ranging  grasshopper  {sEdipoda  fasciata),  which  is  clearly 
seen  when  on  the  wing  ;  but  becomes  almost,  if  not  quite,  invisible  when 
it  closes  its  wings,  and  settles  on  the  rock. 

As  regards  Alpine  Butterflies,  a  good  idea  of  the  various  kinds  may 
be  gained  from  a  paper  by  the  late  W.  A.  Forbes  in  the  '  Entomologist's 
Monthly  Magazine'  for  1879.  Beetles  are  rarer  at  great  heights  than 
butterflies  ;  bees  are  occasionally  carried  up  by  the  wind  or  desire  of 
exploration  to  heights  of  over  12,500  feet,  and  of  the  other  orders  of 
insects  it  can  only  be  said  that  the  Alpine  species  are  very  poorly  repre- 
sented in  public  collections  in  this  country. 

A  scorpion  (Euscorpius  germanicus)  is  found  at  heights  between 
5,000  and  7,000  feet,  and  two  species  of  earthworms  {Allobophora 
p7'ofuga  and  Lumbricus  castaneus)  were  collected  at  5,500  feet  by  Mr. 
Whymper. 

With  regard  to  the  deep-water  fauna  of  the  Alpine  lakes  Professor 
Forel,  of  Morges,  and  other  naturalists  have  worked  assiduously  on  this 
subject. 

Books  to  Consult. 

The  chief  authority  on  Alpine  Zoology  is  F.  von  Tschudi's  w  Das  Thierleben 
der  Alpen,'  first  published  in    1853,  which  has  passed  through  ten  editions  in 


ALPINE   ZOOLOGY.  Clli 

German,  and  was  translated  into  English  in  1858  ;  see  also  V.  Fatio's  ■  Faune  des 
Vertebres  de  la  Suisse'  (5  vols.  1869-1894).  A  recent  pamphlet,  'Alpenthiere 
im  Wechsel  der  Zeit,'  by  Conrad  Zeller  (Leipzig,  1892),  gives  a  sketch  of  the 
history  of  the  subject.  See  too  the  zoological  section  (by  K.  W.  v.  Dalla  Torre) 
of  the  '  Anleitung  zu  wissenschaftlichen  Beobachtungen  auf  Alpenreisen,'  published 
at  Vienna  between  1878  and  1882,  by  the  German  and  Austrian  Alpine  Club. 

Art.   XIII. — Climate  and   Vegetation   of  the  Alps.* 

CONTENTS. 

PAGK 

i.  Climate  and  Vegetation  of  the  Alps ciii 

2.  Additional  Notes  : — 

(a)  Climate  of  the  Alps. 

i.   Diminution  of  the  Pressure  of  the  Air  ......  cviii 

ii.   Increase  of  the  Intensity  of  Solar  Radiation          ....  cviii 

iii.   Fall  of  the  Temperature  with  Increased  Altitude  .         .         .         .  cix 

iv.  Aqueous  Vapour  in  the  Alpine  Air        ......  cix 

v.  Winds  in  the  Alps ex 

(d)   Vegetation  of  the  Alps. 

i.  General  Conditions  affecting  Plant  Life cxi 

ii.  The  Direct  Effect  of  the  Alpine  Climate  upon   the  Forms   of 

Alpine  Plants cxiv 

iii.  The  Flowers  of  Alpine  Plants cxv 

iv.  Origin  of  the  Alpine  Flora cxix 

The  narrow  limits  of  this  Introduction  admit  but  of  a  brief  reference 
to  a  subject  which  it  is  difficult  to  treat  without  entering  into  some 
detail.  The  climate  of  the  Alps  determines  the  character  of  the  vege- 
tation, and  upon  this  depend  the  occupations  and  manner  of  life  of  the 
inhabitants.  Writers  upon  this  subject  have  attached  too  much  im- 
portance to  the  absolute  height  above  the  sea-level,  as  though  this  had 
a  predominant  influence  upon  the  climate ;  whereas  the  position  of 
each  locality  in  respect  to  the  great  mountain  masses,  and  the  local 
conditions  of  exposure  to  the  sun  and  protection  from  all  cold  winds, 
or  the  reverse,  are  of  primary  importance  in  deciding  the  climate  and 
the  vegetation. 

Olive  Region. — Along  the  southern  base  of  the  Alps  we  find  a  first 
illustration  of  the  remark  above  made.  The  climate  of  the  lower 
declivities  and  the  mouths  of  the  valleys  is  markedly  warmer  than  that 
of  the  plains  of  Piedmont  and  Lombardy.  While  the  winter  climate  of 
Milan  is  colder  than  that  of  Edinburgh,  the  olive  ripens  its  fruit  alon^ 
the  skirts  of  the  mountain  region,  and  penetrates  to  a  certain  distance 
towards  the  interior  of  the  chain  along  the  lakes  and  the  wider  valleys 
of  the  Southern  Alps.  The  olive  has  even  become  wild  on  the  shores 
of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  where  the  evergreen  oak  is  indigenous,  and  lemons 
are  grown  on  a  large  scale,  with  partial  protection  during  the  winter. 
The  climate  of  the  Borromean  islands  and  some  points  on  the  shores  of 
the  Lago  Maggiore  is  known  to  permit  the  growth  of  many  plants  of  the 
warmer  temperate  zone,  while  at  a  distance  of  a  few  miles,  and  close  to 

*  This  article  has  been  carefully  revised  throughout  by  Mr.  Percy  Groom,  M.A.,    F.I ,.S 
who  is  solely  responsible  for  the  valuable  '  Additional  Notes  '  which  follow  the  revis<  < 


CIV  INTRODUCTION. 

the  shores  of  the  same  lake,  but  in  positions  exposed  to  the  cold  winds 
from  the  Alps,  plants  of  the  Alpine  region  grow  freely,  and  no  delicate 
perennials  can  survive  the  winter.  As  regards  the  conditions  under 
which  the  olive  flourishes,  it  requires  a  dry  soil,  and  is  at  home  in 
regions  of  Italy  where  the  summer  is  dry.  According  to  Grisebach  at 
Nice  the  olive  unfolds  its  buds  in  the  month  of  January,  when  the 
temperature  is  8*2°  cent.,  but  the  fruits  do  not  ripen  till  the  following 
November.  At  Lugano,  for  instance,  the  mean  temperature  in  January 
is  '9°  cent.,  in  February  4*2°,  and  it  is  not  till  March  and  April  that  the 
mean  temperature,  8*2°  cent.,  is  passed.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  tardy 
awakening  of  the  olive  at  Lugano  would  not  permit  it  to  ripen  its  fruit, 
though  it  might  allow  its  existence.  In  the  canton  of  Tessin,  of  which 
Lugano  is  one  of  the  chief  towns,  the  annual  mean  minimum  in  winter 
(for  twelve  years)  was  —6*8°,  at  which  temperature  the  olive  is  not  killed. 
At  Montpellier,  where  the  tree  flourishes,  the  mean  minimum  is  —9*23°. 
Martins  says  that  the  olive  is  not  seriously  menaced  at  -i5'9f°.  Its 
successful  cultivation  may  be  held  to  indicate  a  winter  in  which  frosts  are 
neither  long  nor  severe,  where  the  mean  temperature  of  winter  does  not 
fall  below  420  Fahr.,  and  a  heat  of  at  least  75 °  Fahr.  during  the  day  is 
continued  through  four  or  five  months  of  the  summer  and  autumn. 

Vine  Region. ,; — The  vine  is  far  more  tolerant  of  cold  than  the  olive,  and 
will  produce  fruit  with  a  much  lower  summer  temperature  ;  but  to  give 
tolerable  wine  it  demands,  at  the  season  of  the  ripening  of  the  grape,  a 
degree  of  heat  not  much  below  that  needed  by  the  olive.  These  con- 
ditions are  satisfied  throughout  a  great  part  of  the  Alpine  chain  in  the 
deeper  valleys,  and  in  favourable  situations  up  to  a  considerable  height 
on  their  northern  slopes.  While  the  olive  region  is  but  exceptionally 
represented  on  the  S.  side,  the  vine  not  only  extends  to  form  a  girdle 
round  the  base  of  the  chain,  but  reaches  near  to  the  very  foot  of  the 
greater  peaks.  The  fitness  of  a  particular  spot  for  the  production  of  wine 
depends  far  more  on  the  direction  of  the  valley,  and  of  the  prevailing 
winds,  than  on  its  height.  Hence  it  happens  that  in  the  Canton  of  the 
Vallais,  the  valley  of  the  Arc  in  Savoy,  and  some  others  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  dividing  range,  tolerable  wine  is  made  at  a  higher  level  than  in  the 
valleys  of  Lombardy,  whose  direction  allows  the  free  passage  of  the  keen 
northern  blasts.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  vineyards  rising  in  terraces 
on  the  N.  slope,  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  sun,  while  on  the  opposite 
declivity  the  pine  descends  to  the  level  of  the  valley.  The  vine  in  the 
Alps  often  resists  a  winter  temperature  which  would  kill  it  down  to  the 
roots  in  the  low  country,  possibly  because  of  the  protection  afforded  by 
the  deep  winter  snow.  An  early  thaw  followed  by  spring  frosts  often 
injures  the  crop.  A  mean  summer  temperature  of  68°  Fahr.  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  produce  tolerable  wine,  but  in  most  of  the  places 
where  the  vine  is  grown  in  the  Alps  the  heat  rises,  at  least  occasionally, 
much  beyond  the  required  limit.  In  fine  weather  the  thermometer  often 
stands  at  and  above  8o°  Fahr.  in  the  shade  in  the  valleys.  Along  with 
the  vine  many  species  of  wild  plants,  especially  annuals,  characteristic  of 
the  flora  of  the  S.  of  Europe,  show  themselves  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps. 

The  Mountain  Region,  or  Region  of  Deciduous  Trees. — Many  writers 
take  the  growth  of  corn  as  the  characteristic  of  the  colder  temperate 


CLIMATE   AND   VEGETATION   OF   THE   ALPS.  CV 

zone,  corresponding  to  what  has  been  called  the  mountain  region  of  the 
Alps.  But  so  many  varieties  of  all  the  common  species,  with  widely 
different  requirements,  are  in  cultivation,  that  it  is  impossible  to  identify 
the  growth  of  cereals  in  general  with  any  natural  division  of  the  surface. 
A  more  natural  limit  is  marked  by  the  presence  of  the  principal  deciduous 
trees.  Although  the  oak,  beech,  and  ash  do  not  reach  exactly  the  same 
height,  and  are  not  often  present  together  in  the  Alps,  their  upper  limit 
corresponds  accurately  enough  to  that  transition  from  a  temperate  to  a 
colder  climate  that  is  shown  by  a  general  change  in  the  wild  herbaceous 
vegetation.  The  lower  limit  of  this  district  is,  as  we  have  seen,  too 
irregular  to  admit  of  definition  ;  its  upper  boundary,  marked  by  the 
gradual  disappearance  of  the  above-mentioned  trees,  is  at  about  4,000  ft. 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  Alps,  and  often  rises  to  5,500  ft.  on  the  southern 
slopes.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  aspect  of  this  region 
is  mainly  characterised  by  its  tree  vegetation.  The  climate  appears  to 
be  favourable  to  one  or  other  of  the  trees  which  have  been  named  as 
marking  its  limits,  but  the  interference  of  man  has  done  much  to 
eradicate  them.  It  is  probable  that  at  a  very  early  date  they  were 
extensively  destroyed  for  use  in  building,  and  to  clear  space  for  meadow 
and  pasture  land  ;  so  that,  if  we  except  the  beech  forests  of  the  Austrian 
Alps,  there  is  scarcely  a  considerable  wood  of  deciduous  trees  to  be 
seen  anywhere  in  the  chain.  In  many  districts,  where  population  is  not 
too  dense,  the  Scotch  pine  {P.  sylvestris)  and  spruce  {Picea  excelsd)  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  oak  and  beech,  mainly  because  the  young  plants 
are  not  so  eagerly  attacked  by  goats,  the  great  destroyers  of  tree  vegeta- 
tion. On  the  S.  side  of  the  Alps  the  chestnut,  although  naturally  an 
inhabitant  of  a  warmer  region,  has  in  many  districts  replaced  the  other 
deciduous  trees,  rising  to  within  1,000  ft.  of  the  same  height,  being  met  by 
the  spruce,  which  descends  through  the  intermediate  space.  To  this 
region  belong  many  of  the  lower  ranges  on  the  outskirts  of  the  Alpine 
chain,  and  some  highland  pastoral  districts,  such  as  those  of  the  Bauges, 
in  Savoy,  of  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Appenzell,  and  the  plateaux  of  the 
Venetian  Alps  between  the  Adige  and  the  Piave.  We  find  here  one 
form  of  the  peculiar  condition  of  society  charactertstic  of  the  Alpine 
highlands,  but  this  is  more  conveniently  described  in  connection  with 
the  next  region.  The  annual  mean  temperature  of  this  region  is  not 
very  different  from  that  of  the  British  Islands,  but  the  climatal  con- 
ditions are  as  different  as  possible.  Here  snow  lies  for  several  months 
together,  till  it  disappears  rapidly  in  a  few  weeks  of  warm  spring  weather, 
and  gives  place  to  a  summer  considerably  warmer  than  the  average  of 
our  seasons. 

The  Subalpine  Region,  or  Region  of  Coniferous  Trees. — This  is  the 
region  which  mainly  determines  the  manner  of  life  of  the  population  of 
the  Alps.  On  a  rough  estimate  of  the  region  lying  between  the  summits 
of  the  Alps  and  the  plain  country  that  encircles  them,  we  may  reckon  the 
whole  amount  of  land  in  cultivation  at  about  one-quarter  of  the  surface, 
and  of  which  but  little  more  than  a  half  is  under  vineyards  or  corn-fields, 
and  the  remainder  produces  forage  and  artificial  meadow.  Nearly  another 
quarter  may  be  set  down  as  utterly  barren,  consisting  of  snow-fields, 
glaciers,  bare  rock,  lakes,  and  the  beds  of  streams,  leaving  about  one- 


CV1  INTRODUCTION. 

half  of  the  entire  surface  which  is  divided  between  forest  and  grass  land, 
either  natural  meadow  or  pasture.  These  proportions  show  clearly  that 
if  any  considerable  population  is  to  derive  a  subsistence  from  the  soil,  it 
must  be  from  feeding  animals,  and  not  from  the  direct  production  of 
human  food.  It  is  principally  from  the  subalpine  region  that  these 
animals  draw  their  support.  Grass-land  is,  indeed,  abundant  in  some 
parts  of  the  mountain  region,  but  it  is  chiefly  reserved  for  hay,  while  the 
upper  pastures  of  the  subalpine  and  Alpine  regions  support  the  herds  and 
flocks  during  the  fine  season.  Botanically  this  region  is  best  distinguished 
by  the  prevalence  of  coniferous  trees,  forming  vast  forests  that,  if  not 
kept  down  by  man,  and  by  the  tooth  of  the  goat,  would  cover  the  slopes 
of  the  Alps.  The  prevalent  species  are  the  spruce  (Piceaexcelsa)  and  the 
silver  fir  (Abies  pectinata).  In  granitic  districts  the  larch  (Larix  Europcsa) 
flourishes,  and  reaches  a  greater  size  than  any  other  tree!  Less  common 
are  the  Scotch  pine  (Pinus  sylvestris)  and  the  arolla  (Pinus  cembrd)  or 
Siberian  fir.  In  the  Eastern  Alps  the  mughus,  dwarf-pine,  or  Krummholz 
(Pinus  pumilio)  of  the  Germans,  becomes  conspicuous,  forming  a  distinct 
zone  on  the  higher  mountains,  above  the  level  of  its  cogeners.  The  pine 
forests  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  natural  economy  of  the  Alps, 
and  their  preservation  is  a  matter  of  vital  consequence  to  the  future  in- 
habitants. Through  ignorance  or  recklessness,  the  destruction  of  the 
forests  has  in  some  districts  been  carried  much  too  far  ;  for  the  present 
gain  derived  from  the  sale  of  timber,  and  the  additional  space  gained  for 
pasture,  may  be  dearly  purchased  by  future  sterility.  In  the  Northern 
Alps  the  coniferous  trees  scarcely  attain  to  a  height  of  6,000  ft.,  while 
on  the  S.  side  they  often  reach  7,000  ft.  The  larch,  the  arolla,  and  the 
mughus  are  the  species  that  ascend  highest,  not  uncommonly  surpassing 
the  above  limits. 

The  Alpine  Region. — In  defiance  of  etymology,  which  would  make  the 
term  Alpine  coextensive  with  the  entire  tract  available  for  pasturing  cattle, 
this  epithet  has  been  attached  by  writers  of  authority  to  the  zone  of  vege- 
tation extending  between  the  upper  limit  of  trees  and  the  first  appearance 
of  permanent  masses  of  snow.  Shrubs  are  not  wanting  throughout  this 
region.  The  common  rhododendron,  several  small  species  of  Alpine 
willow,  and  the  common  juniper  extend  up  to,  the  latter  even  beyond, 
the  level  of  perpetual  snow.  It  is  in  this  region  that  the  botanist  finds 
fully  developed  the  peculiar  vegetation  characteristic  of  the  Alps.  Many 
alpine  species  may,  indeed,  be  found  here  and  there  at  lower  levels,  either 
accidentally  transported  from  their  natural  home,  or  finding  a  permanent 
refuge  in  some  cool  spot  sheltered  from  the  sun,  and  moistened  by  stream- 
lets descending  from  the  snow  region  ;  but  it  is  here  that  the  varied  species 
of  saxifrage,  primrose,  pedicularis,  anemone,  gentian,  and  other  genera 
that  give  to  the  Alpine  flora  its  utmost  brilliancy  of  hue,  have  their 
peculiar  home.  In  valleys  where  pasturage  is  scarce,  the  inhabitants  are 
forced  to  send  their  cattle  up  to  the  very  limit  of  vegetation  in  order  to 
support  them  during  the  summer,  while  the  grass  of  the  subalpine  region 
is  in  great  part  turned  into  hay  for  winter  use.  In  such  cases  one  or  two 
men  remain  for  several  weeks  on  some  isolated  slope  of  Alpine  pasture, 
many  hours'  walk  from  the  nearest  village,  until  the  day  arrives  when  the 
cattle  are  led  back,  perhaps  across  a  glacier,  or  by  some  very  difficult 


CLIMATE  AND   VEGETATION   OF  THE  ALPS.  cvii 

track,  to  the  lower  chalet  which  serves  as  an  intermediate  station  between 
their  summer  and  winter  quarters.  In  other  parts  of  the  Alps,  where 
sheep  and  goats  are  more  common,  the  pastures  of  the  higher  region  are 
left  exclusively  to  them.  The  limits  of  this  region  in  the  Northern  Alps 
may  be  fixed  between  6,000  to  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  at  least  1,000 
ft.  higher  on  the  S.  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  in  some  parts  of  the  main 
chain.  In  Piedmont  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  chalets  at  8,500  ft. 
above  the  sea-level,  and  vegetation  often  extends  freely  up  to  9,500  ft. 

The  Glacial  Region. — This  comprehends  all  that  portion  of  the  Alps  that 
rises  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  We  continue  to  use  that  term, 
which  is  convenient  and  cannot  well  be  replaced,  but  without  explanation 
it  is  apt  to  mislead. 

Since  the  mean  temperature  becomes  constantly  lower  as  we  ascend 
above  the  sea-level,  there  must  be  some  point  at  which  more  snow  falls 
in  each  year  than  is  melted,  or  carried  off  by  the  wind,  or  otherwise  re- 
moved. It  is  found  that,  one  year  with  another,  this  occurs  at  pretty 
nearly  the  same  point,  and  that  the  same  patches  or  fields  of  snow  are 
found  to  cover  the  same  slopes  of  the  mountain.  But  we  never  find, 
unless  after  fresh  snow,  that  the  entire  surface  of  a  mountain  above  a 
certain  height  is  covered  with  a  continuous  sheet  of  snow.  The  form  of 
the  surface  causes  more  snow  to  rest  on  some  parts  than  upon  others  ; 
the  prevalent  winds  blow  away  the  freshly  fallen  snow  from  the  exposed 
ridges,  and  cause  it  to  drift  in  the  hollows  ;  and  the  sun  acts  with  great 
force,  even  on  the  highest  peaks,  upon  the  slopes  fully  exposed  to  his  rays. 
The  consequence  is,  that  portions  of  the  surface  remain  bare  at  heights 
greatly  exceeding  the  so  called  limit  of  perpetual  snow  ;  and  that  limit 
is  far  from  retaining  a  constant  elevation  throughout  the  Alps,  or  even  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  same  mountain.  The  term,  nevertheless,  has  a 
definite  meaning  when  rightly  understood.  Leaving  out  of  account 
masses  of  snow  that  casually  accumulate  in  hollows  shaded  from  the  sun, 
the  formation  of  permanent  snow-fields  takes  place  at  about  the  same 
height  when  the  conditions  are  similar.  Hence  it  happens  that,  on  view- 
ing an  Alpine  range  from  a  distance,  the  larger  patches  and  fields  of  snow 
on  adjoining  mountains,  with  the  same  aspect,  are  seen  to  maintain  a 
pretty  constant  level.  Vegetation  becomes  scarce  in  this  region ;  all 
the  more  level  parts  are  covered  with  ice  or  snow,  and  the  higher  we 
ascend,  the  less  of  the  surface  remains  bare,  with  the  exception  of  pro- 
jecting masses  of  rock,  which  usually  undergo  rapid  disintegration  from 
the  freezing  of  whatever  water  finds  its  way  into  the  superficial  fissures. 
Many  species  of  flowering  plants  have  nevertheless  been  found  at  a 
height  of  11,000  ft.,  and  even  above  12,000  ft.  As  only  a  thin  covering 
of  snow  can  rest  upon  rocks  that  lie  at  an  angle  exceeding  6o°,  and  this 
is  soon  removed  by  the  wind  or  melted  by  the  sun,  some  portions  of  rock 
remain  bare  even  at  the  greatest  height  attained  by  the  peaks  of  the 
Alps.  There  is,  indeed,  reason  to  believe  that  the  quantity  of  snow 
falling  on  the  higher  summits  is  very  much  less  than  falls  a  few  thousand 
feet  lower  down. 


INTRODUCTION. 


2.  Additional  Notes. 
(a)  Climate  of  the  Alps. 

i.  Diminution  of  the  Pressure  of  the  Air. — As  we  ascend  a  mountain 
the  air  constantly  becomes  more  and  more  rarefied.  The  actual  rate  at 
which  the  atmospheric  pressure,  registered  by  the  barometer,  falls  with 
increasing  altitude  depends,  however,  on  the  temperature,  the  rate  of 
decrease  in  the  pressure  of  the  air  being  slower  at  high  temperatures 
than  at  low  ones.  These  facts  are  illustrated  by  observations  made 
at  the  Hospice  on  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass  and  on  the  St.  The'odule 
Pass. 


Mean  Annual 
Atmospheric 
Pressure  in 
Millimetres 
of  Mercury 

Deviations  from  the  Annual 
Mean  Atmospheric  Pressure 

Cold  Month 
(March) 

Warm  Month 
(July) 

Great  St.  Bernard 
St.  Theodule 

(  2,472  m.   ) 
l(8,in    ft.) J 

t  (10,899  ft- )» 

563-9 
506-2 

-4-2 
-4-6 

+  4*6 

+  5'8 

ii.  Increase  of  the  Intensity  of  Solar  Radiatio7i. — The  higher  a  spot 
is  situated  above  the  sea-level  the  thinner  will  be  the  stratum  of  air  inter- 
posed between  the  sun  and  that  spot  ;  hence  the  less  will  be  the  amount 
of  sunlight  which  is  intercepted  and  absorbed  by  the  air  before  reaching 
the  earth.  The  sun's  rays  will  thus  strike  the  earth  at  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain with  greater  intensity  than  at  the  foot  of  it.  This  increased  intensity 
of  insolation  with  rise  above  the  sea-level  is  not  due  solely  to  the 
decreased  thickness  of  the  layer  of  air  intervening  between  sun  and  earth. 
It  is  further  occasioned  by  the  simultaneous  diminution  in  the  absolute 
amount  of  aqueous  vapour  in  the  atmosphere.  Consequently  intensity  of 
insolation  increases  more  rapidly  than  the  atmospheric  pressure  lessens, 
with  rise  in  altitude.  M.  Violle's  and  M.  Margottet's  simultaneous 
measurements  on  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
Bossons  glacier  illustrate  this.  They  were  made  on  August  16  and  17, 
1875,  both  fine  days. 


- 

Altitude 

Atmospheric 

Pressure  in 

Mm. 

Pressure  of 
Aqueous 
Vapour 

Relative 

Intensity  of  the 

Sun's  Rays 

Mont  Blanc 
Bossons  glacier   . 

4,810  m.    ) 

(15,782  ft.)  r 

j       1,200  m.    ) 
1    (3,937  ft.) 7 

430 
66l 

I 

S-3 

•94 

79 

This  intense  insolation  at  increased  altitudes  causes  by  day  a  greater  dif- 
ference between  the  temperature  in  the  shade  and  in  sunlight,  and  also 


CLIMATE  AND   VEGETATION    OF   THE   ALPS.  cix 

between  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  that  of  the  soil.  M.  Charles 
Martins's  observations  made  in  the  Pyrenees  illustrate  this  last  statement. 
His  measurements  were  made  on  three  fine  days  in  September,  the  two 
points  being  less  than  fifteen  miles  apart. 


_ 

Altitude 

Mean  Temperature  of 

Soil                              Air 

'  Bagneres 
Pic  du  Midi    . 

551  m.  (1,808  ft.) 
2,877  m.  (9,439^.) 

36-1°  (cent.)         22-3°  (cent.) 
33-8°      „         |    io-i°      „ 

The  same  circumstances  which  lead  to  magnified  insolation  by  day  cause 
a  constantly  increasing  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth's  surface  by  night 
as  the  altitude  is  greater.  Comparing,  for  instance,  Chamonix  with  the 
Grand  Plateau  on  Mont  Blanc,  situated  2,882  m.  higher,  radiation  at 
night  was  nearly  twice  as  great  at  the  higher  spot.  The  temperature  of 
the  snow  sank,  on  the  nights  of  August  28-31,  to  -19*2°  (cent.),  whilst 
the  temperature  of  the  air  was  -6*5°  (cent.)  Thus  it  comes  to  pass  that 
on  mountains  more  intense  insolation  by  day,  together  with  increased 
radiation  by  night,  causes  the  soil  to  undergo  greater  changes  of 
temperature  than  in  the  plains  below. 

iii.  Fall  of  the  Temperature  with  Increased  Altitude. — As  we 
ascend  a  mountain  the  temperature  of  the  air  falls  about  half  a  degree 
(cent.)  for  each  100  yards  of  vertical  ascent.  The  exact  rate  of  the  fall 
of  the  temperature  varies  slightly  according  to  the  aspect,  the  mean  tem- 
perature, and  the  configuration  of  the  mountain.  Both  the  diurnal  and 
the  annual  variations  of  temperature  of  the  air  decrease  as  the  altitude 
increases.  On  the  St.  Theodule  Pass  (3,322  metres,  10,899  ft-)  tne  mean 
monthly  temperature  of  the  air  is  below  freezing  point  in  all  months 
excepting  June  (o°  cent.),  July  (i°  cent.),  August  (ri°  cent.),  and 
September  (i-i°  cent.)  Observations  there  in  1865-6  showed  that  the 
temperature  of  the  air  rose  above  o°  cent,  four  times  in  May,  though  but 
twice  in  October,  and  then  only  at  midday,  while  in  the  four  months  from 
June  to  September  the  temperature  of  the  air  rose  at  about  midday 
(1  o'clock  actually)  1 10  out  of  122  days.  At  night  it  exceeded  o°  cent,  on 
no  occasion  in  June,  but  in  the  three  following  months  it  did  so  eleven 
times.  Thus  in  the  higher  region  of  the  Alps  the  temperature  of  the  air 
falls  below  freezing  point  on  most  summer  nights. 

iv.  Aqueous  Vapour  in  the  Alpine  Air. — The  absolute  amount  of 
water  vapour  in  the  air  diminishes  with  increasing  altitude  more  rapidly 
than  does  the  atmospheric  pressure.  But  the  relative  humidity,  i.e.  the 
degree  to  which  the  air  is  saturated  with  aqueous  vapour,  shows  no 
regular  changes  as  the  altitude  varies.  That  is  to  say,  though  the  air  at 
the  top  of  a  mountain  contains  less  aqueous  vapour  than  that  at  the  foot, 
it  is  not  necessarily  drier.  In  the  Alps  it  appears  that,  on  the  average, 
above  the  altitude  of  1,000  metres,  the  air  is  drier  in  winter  and  moister 
in  summer  than  below  that  limit.  The  important  and  prominent  feature 
of  the  hygrometric  condition  of  the  air  at  great  heights  in  the  Alps  is  the 


CX  INTRODUCTION. 

rapid  changes  in  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air  in  fine  weather  :  wet 
fogs  and  mist  alternate  with  spells  of  fine  weather,  during  which  the  air 
may  be  extremely  dry. 

The  rate  of  evaporation  is  greatly  accelerated  on  mountains,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  diminished  pressure  of  the  air.  In  addition  the  extreme 
dryness  of  the  air  on  fine  days  aids  the  process.  Consequently  objects 
dry  rapidly  on  the  mountains  ;  perspiration  evaporates  quickly  from  the 
human  body,  the  skin  tends  to  become  parched,  and  the  feeling  of  thirst 
is  increased. 

Cloudiness. — As  might  be  anticipated  from  some  previous  remarks  the 
cloudiest  weather  in  the  Alps  is  in  the  spring  and  summer,  but  in  the  low- 
lying  parts  of  Switzerland  it  is  in  winter. 

Rainfall. — On  many  mountains  the  fall  of  rain  (including  snow)  increases 
with  the  rise  above  the  sea-level,  but  only  to  a  certain  altitude,  above 
which  it  again  diminishes.  It  is,  therefore,  possible  that  the  maximum 
snowfall  is  not  on  the  actual  summits  of  the  Alps. 

Duration  of  the  S?iow. — The  snow  line  descends  to  its  lowest  limit  at 
the  end  of  January,  after  which  it  gradually  ascends  till  it  attains  its 
highest  point  {circa  2,700  metres,  or  8,859  ft-)  about  August.  In  the 
middle  of  March  the  snow  clothes  the  mountains  to  approximately  the 
same  extent  as  in  the  middle  of  December  ;  even  at  the  end  of  October 
the  snow  line  {circa  1,510  metres,  or  4,954  ft.)  is  higher  than  at  the  end  of 
May  {circa  1,470  metres,  or  4,823  ft.) 

v.  Winds  in  the  Alps. —  In  the  Alps,  as  on  other  mountains,  the 
general  rule  holds  good  that  during  the  day-time  there  is  a  wind  ascend- 
ing from  the  valleys  to  the  mountain  tops,  whereas  at  night-time  the 
exact  contrary  takes  place.  These  alternating  day  and  night  winds  are 
familiar  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  regions  of  the  Alpine  chain,  and 
are  known  by  various  local  names. 

The  diurnal  formation  of  clouds  and  rain  is  greatly  influenced  by  these 
winds.  The  wind  ascending  the  slopes  by  day  takes  with  it  the  moisture 
from  the  valleys,  and  dries  the  air  of  the  latter.  As  the  air  ascends  it 
cools,  and  the  moisture  condenses  in  the  form  of  clouds  hovering  on  or 
over  the  mountain  tops,  or  even  forms  rain.  The  descending  night  wind 
dissipates  the  clouds,  and  carries  moisture  down  to  the  valleys. 

The  Foh?i  wind  is  a  warm,  dry,  irregular  wind,  blowing  from  southern 
points  (S.,  S.E.,  or,  rarely,  S.W.)  It  blows  about  thirty  to  forty  days  in 
the  year,  most  frequently  in  autumn  and  winter,  least  often  in  summer. 
On  a  winter's  day  it  causes  the  temperature  of  the  air  to  be  as  high  as  in 
summer,  and  the  atmosphere  to  become  extraordinarily  dry.  It  is  greeted 
with  joy  in  spring-time,  because  in  one  day  it  melts  enormous  masses  of 
snow  and  ice,  doing,  according  to  Hann,  as  much  work  in  this  direction 
as  the  sun  unaided  would  normally  accomplish  in  fourteen  days. 

(b)   Vegetation   of  the  Alps. 

In  discussing  the  causes  of  the  presence  of  a  plant  in  a  certain 
region  it  is  necessary  to  answer  two  questions  :  '  How  did  the  plant 
originally  come  there?'  and  'What  characters  enable  it  still  to  exist 
there?5      Similarly,    in   dealing  with    the  form   and   behaviour  of  the 


CLIMATE  AND   VEGETATION   OF  THE   ALPS.  Cxi 

plant,  two  problems  present  themselves  :  '  To  what  extent  are  the 
characters  of  the  plant  due  to  those  of  its  ancestors  ?'  and  '  How  far  are 
they  to  be  attributed  to  the  direct  action  on  a  plant  of  its  surroundings  ? ' 

i.  General  Conditions  affecting  Plant  Life. — A  plant  derives  its  food  from 
the  soil  and  the  air.  The  green  parts,  particularly  the  leaves,  under  the 
influence  of  light,  absorb  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere.  In  order 
to  build  up  new  plant  material  the  carbon  thus  absorbed  by  the  leaves 
requires  to  be  supplemented  by  water  and  substances  contained  in 
solution  in  the  soil.  The  latter  are  absorbed  by  the  roots,  and  con- 
veyed up  the  stems  to  the  leaves,  where  they  combine  with  the  carbon  to 
form  complex  food  substances  (process  of  assimilation).  From  the 
leaves  the  excess  of  water  is  excreted,  mainly  in  the  form  of  vapour  (pro- 
cess of  transpiration).  For  its  existence  and  growth  an  ordinary  plant 
requires  carbonic  acid  and  oxygen  (both  occurring  in  the  air),  water, 
and  substances  in  solution  (found  in  the  soil) ;  and  further  needs  an 
adequate  supply  of  light  and  an  appropriate  temperature. 

Effect  of  Temperature. — As  a  rule  flowering  plants  exhibit  no  vital 
activity  at  a  temperature  below  the  freezing  point  of  water.  Usually  a 
temperature  several  degrees  above  this  point  is  essential  to  arouse  the 
growth  of  a  plant.  No  experiments  have  been  made  with  regard  to  this 
question  upon  plants  growing  at  high  Alpine  altitudes.  It  is,  however, 
known  that  certain  of  them  can  push  out  their  flowers  just  at  the  snow 
line  in  the  melting  or  unmelted  snow  {Crocus  vermis,  Soldanella  alpina 
and  S.  pusilla,  Ranunculus  alpestris,  Anemone  vernalis,  &c.)  It  is 
safe  to  assume  that  when  they  are  at  a  temperature  below  o°  cent,  the 
vast  majority  of  Alpine  plants  are  incapable  of  any  appreciable  vegeta- 
tive activity.  They  must,  therefore,  rest  during  the  long  season  at 
which  the  temperature  is  very  low  and  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow. 
It  is  impossible  to  foretell  by  means  of  observations  on  the  temperature 
of  the  air  at  different  altitudes  when  the  plants  at  those  altitudes  will 
first  commence  active  vegetation  in  the  summer,  or  first  enter  upon  a 
rest  at  the  approach  of  the  winter.  One  reason  of  this  is  that  the  dis- 
tribution of  snow  over  the  surface  is  not  equable,  and  the  intense 
insolation  may  cause  the  temperature  of  patches  of  ground  uncovered 
with  snow  to  rise  considerably  above  that  of  the  surrounding  air.  The 
active  vegetative  season  at  the  different  altitudes,  however,  has  been 
found  to  run  parallel  with  the  mean  monthly  temperature  and  the 
rate  at  which  the  snow  line  ascends.  For  instance,  the  mean  monthly 
temperature  of  the  air  on  the  St.  Theodule  Pass  (3,322  metres)  does  not 
reach  as  high  as  o°  cent,  till  June,  but  remains  above  this  point  during 
the  three  following  months,  and  sinks  again  below  it  in  October. 
Again,  the  snow  line  in  the  Alps  at  the  end  of  May  is  lower  than  it  is  at 
the  end  of  October  ;  it  lies  at  about  the  same  altitude  at  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember as  it  does  towards  the  end  of  June.  Both  these  sets  of  facts 
correspond  to  the  late  commencement  of  spring,  and  the  lingering  second 
summer  in  autumn  time,  also  to  the  short  vegetative  season  and  the  long 
period  of  rest. 

Owing  to  this  shortness  of  the  active  season  plants  at  high  altitudes 
in  the  Alps  require  to  produce  flowers  rapidly  and  to  mature  their  seeds 
quickly.     As  an  aid  in  this  respect  many  Alpine  plants  have  relatively 


CX11  INTRODUCTION. 

well  developed  subterranean  stems,  or  thick  roots,  in  which  they  store 
food  during  winter,  so  that  at  the  commencement  of  the  active  season  the 
reserve  stock  of  food  may  be  at  once  available  for  the  rapid  production  of 
new  leaves  and  flowers.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  leaves  are 
actively  manufacturing  food,  the  nutriment  is  being  consumed  not  only 
in  the  production  of  seeds  and  in  growth,  but  is  also  being  stored  up  in 
the  subterranean  parts  for  use  in  the  following  spring. 

In  the  lowlands  of  Switzerland,  as  elsewhere  in  Europe,  there  exists  a 
considerable  number  of  annuals,  i.e.  plants  which  in  a  single  season  ger- 
minate from  seeds,  produce  flowers  and  seeds,  and  then  die.  They  rest 
during  the  unfavourable  season  only  in  the  form  of  seeds.  Opposed 
to  these  are  pere7inial  plants,  which  can  live  year  after  year,  and  can 
rest  during  the  unfavourable  season.  The  shortness  and  severity  of  the 
Alpine  summer  would  render  the  continued  existence  of  annuals  pre- 
carious, because  one  especially  severe  season,  by  preventing  the  ripening 
of  fruits,  would  threaten  an  annual  species  with  extermination.  In 
addition  the  annuals  labour  under  the  disadvantage  that  a  seed  cannot 
store  up  such  a  large  amount  of  food  as  a  subterranean  organ  of  a 
mature  plant,  nor  can  the  root  of  a  tiny  seedling  at  once  have  at  its  com- 
mand such  supplies  of  water  and  substances  in  the  soil  as  an  already  well 
developed  plant.  Hence  at  high  altitudes  very  few  annuals  occur  in  the 
Alps  ;  and  the  few  which  exist  there  are,  for  the  most  part,  small  plants 
living  in  a  moist  sand  (e.g.  Gentiana  tenella).  Kerner  gives  the  following 
numbers,  which  illustrate  the  gradual  disappearance  of  annuals  in  the 
Alps  :  on  the  Danube  plains  there  are  in  every  ioo  plants  56  annuals 
and  44  perennials,  whereas  in  the  Alps  out  of  every  100  plants  4  only  are 
annuals  and  96  perennials. 

Even  when  the  plants  are  in  a  state  of  activity  variations  of  the  tem- 
perature influence  their  behaviour.  There  is  for  each  of  the  various 
functions  a  certain  minimum  temperature,  below  which  the  function  is 
in  abeyance.  Above  this  each  rise  in  temperature  causes  the  process  to 
become  more  active,  till  a  certain  optimum  temperature  is  attained, 
above  which  again  there  may  be  a  waning  of  activity,  till  at  a  certain 
maximum  temperature  the  performance  of  the  function  ceases.  This 
holds  good  for  the  processes  of  absorption  by  means  of  the  roots  and 
leaves  and  the  process  of  growth.  The  process  of  transpiration  has, 
however,  no  temperature  maximum  or  minimum.  The  temperature  of 
the  Alpine  plant  depends  more  on  the  illumination  than  on  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  dissociate  the  influence  of 
temperature,  light,  and  moisture  on  active  vegetative  processes  in  Alpine 
plants. 

Effect  of  Light. — Light  is  essential  to  green  plants  in  order  that  they 
may  obtain  from  the  air  the  carbonic  acid  required  for  their  continued 
existence.  Light  directly  promotes  assimilation  and  transpiration  by  the 
leaves,  and  indirectly  accelerates  absorption  of  liquids  on  the  part  of  the 
root ;  and  the  activity  of  these  processes  is  proportional  to  the  intensity 
of  the  light.  Light  has  the  reverse  effect  on  growth  in  the  length  of 
stems,  as  it  retards  the  process  with  a  strength  proportional  to  its  in- 
tensity. 

Effect  of  the  Relative  Humidity  of  the  Air. — Dryness  in  the  air  promotes 


CLIMATE  AND  VEGETATION   OF  THE  ALPS.  CXlli 

transpiration  ;  moisture  in  the  air  has  the  reverse  effect.     Indirectly  the 
same  effects  are  produced  on  the  rate  of  absorption  by  the  roots. 

Effect  of  the  Rarefaction  of  the  Air. — The  decreased  pressure  of  the  air 
promotes  transpiration,  but  by  diluting  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmo- 
sphere retards  the  assimilation  of  carbon. 

Relation  of  t/ie  Behaviour  of  Alpine  Plants  to  Climate. — These  brief 
considerations  with  reference  to  the  influence  of  temperature  and  light, 
as  well  as  moisture  and  pressure  in  the  air,  suffice  to  show  that  Alpine 
plants  are  exposed  to  considerable  risks.  The  most  striking  danger 
appears  to  be  loss  of  too  much  water  by  excessive  transpiration.  Intense 
insolation,  the  frequent  dpyness  of  the  air,  and  its  low  pressure  all  unite 
in  inducing  rapid  transpiration.  During  the  day-time,  however,  the 
intense  insolation,  inasmuch  as  it  warms  the  soil  to  a  temperature  con- 
siderably above  that  of  the  air,  at  the  same  time  promotes  absorption  by 
means  of  the  roots.  At  night-time  intense  radiation  cools  the  soil  to  such 
a  degree  as  seriously  to  retard,  or  quite  stop,  absorption  of  water  from 
the  soil,  and  a  plant  itself  is  almost  equally  cooled,  but  the  air  is  not. 
Hence  at  night-time  the  plant  is  doubly  in  danger  of  being  dried  up, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  conditions  causing  the  slowing  of  the  absorption 
of  water  are  not  counterbalanced  by  external  influences  initiating  an 
equivalent  retardation  of  its  exhalation  of  aqueous  vapour.  These  con- 
siderations, together  with  the  necessity  of  having  a  proper  proportion 
between  transpiration  and  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  by  the  leaves, 
give  the  clue  to  the  structure  of  many  of  the  Alpine  plants.  In  the  first 
place  an  extensive  development  of  the  subterranean  parts  is  very 
characteristic,  and  this,  apart  from  the  significance  already  attached  to 
it,  is  of  importance  in  that  a  large  surface  is  thus  provided  for  absorbing 
nutritive  bodies  and  water  from  the  soil.  The  Alpine  plants  are  usually 
of  low  stature,  often  forming  little  mats  of  turf,  or  even  hemispherical 
cushions,  with  close-set,  small  leaves.  As  examples  of  plants  forming 
mats  or  cushions  the  following  may  be  mentioned  :  Petrocallis  pyrenaica, 
a  number  of  species  of  Draba,  Silene  pwnilio  and  S.  acaulis,  Cherleria 
sedoides,  some  species  of  Androsace,  including  A.  imbricata  and  A. 
helvetica  (both  of  which  form  small,  hemispherical  mounds),  Herniaria 
alpina,  and  a  number  of  species  of  Saxifraga.  Even  where  no  distinct 
tufts  or  mats  are  formed  the  leaves  are  frequently  arranged  in  rosettes, 
pressed  against  the  ground.  In  all  these  cases  the  leaves  are  set  closely 
together,  and  only  the  flower  stalks,  when  of  any  length,  represent  an 
elongated  stem.  This  compressed  arrangement  of  the  leaves  diminishes 
transpiration  by  exposing  less  of  the  leaf  surface  freely  to  the  atmosphere, 
and  by  leading  to  the  accumulation  of  moisture  in  the  air  between  the 
leaves.  In  many  cases  the  small  size  of  the  leaves  works  in  the  same 
direction.  Transpiration  is  often  further  depressed  by  the  copious  de- 
velopment of  hairs  {e.g.  in  Edelweiss),  by  succulence  in  relatively  decreas- 
ing the  surface  in  comparison  with  the  volume  (e.g.  Sedum  sempervivum), 
or  by  the  stiff  or  leathery  nature  of  the  leaves,  which  are  then  clothed  with 
a  thicker,  more  impermeable  membrane.  It  will,  therefore,  be  found  that 
there  are  many  Alpine  plants  which  have  small,  stiff  leaves,  with  a  greater 
or  less  extent  of  succulence  or  hairiness.  Occasionally  the  exposed 
face  of  the  leaf  is  diminished  by  the  blade  being  rolled  on  itself  (in  some 

g 


CX1V  INTRODUCTION. 

grasses  and  Empetrum  nigrum).  The  low  stature  of  the  Alpine  plants 
possibly  confers  a  double  advantage,  first  by  diminishing  the  effect  of 
wind  (which  increases  transpiration)  and  secondly  by  placing  the  plant  in 
a  layer  of  atmosphere  which  soon  tends  to  assume  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  and  the  plant,  particularly  at  night-time.  In  contrast  to  those  Alpine 
plants,  which  are  obviously  constructed  in  harmony  with  their  surround- 
ings, there  are  others  which  appear  to  be  devoid  of  any  special  structural 
characteristic  enabling  them  to  economise  water.  These  may  have  relatively 
tall  leafy  stems,  or  comparatively  large,  thin,  smooth  leaves.  At  present 
no  sufficient  explanation  has  been  offered  which  will  account  for  the 
power  undoubtedly  possessed  by  these  forms  of  resisting  the  trying 
Alpine  conditions.  Neither  can  we  offer  any  adequate  reasons  for  the 
power  which  Alpine  plants  possess  of  withstanding  the  almost  regular 
frosts  at  night-time  in  summer  ;  we  can  only  assume  that  it  is  a  character 
stamped  into  their  *  constitution.5  The  relatively  large  amount  of  green 
colouring  matter  in  Alpine  plants,  which  is  to  be  noted  by  their  frequently 
dark  green  colour,  enables  them  to  absorb  sufficient  carbonic  acid,  in  spite 
of  the  shortness  of  the  vegetative  season  and  the  rarefaction  of  the  air. 

ii.  The  Direct  Effect  of  the  Alpine  Climate  upon  the  Forms  of  Alpine 
Plants. — If  we  succeed  in  cultivating  in  our  gardens  plants  which  grow 
in  high  Alpine  situations,  it  is  our  experience  that  the  garden  individuals 
are  frequently  very  different  from  individuals  of  the  same  species  on  the 
mountains.  If  naturally  woolly  their  hairy  covering  often  diminishes, 
their  stems  tend  to  become  longer,  and  their  leaves  are  separated  by 
greater  intervals  along  the  stem.  In  addition  the  leaves  tend  to  become 
thinner.  This  proves  that  in  such  Alpine  forms  the  shape  of  the  plant  is 
largely  induced  by  the  Alpine  conditions.  In  order  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  these  conditions  are  directly  responsible  for  the  shapes  of  Alpine 
plants  Bonnier  cultivated  plants  in  the  lowlands,  at  high  altitudes  in 
the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  and  at  intermediate  stations.  When  the  plants 
remained  healthy  he  found  that  with  increasing  altitude  they  became 
more  dwarfed,  the  stem  being  shorter,  and  the  leaves  pressed  closer  to- 
gether ;  often,  in  place  of  being  inserted  at  intervals  up  a  distinct  stem, 
the  leaves  formed  a  rosette  at  the  base.  For  instance,  the  Jerusalem 
Artichoke  {Helianthus  tuberosus),  which  in  the  plains  produces  a  tall, 
leafy  stem,  in  the  Alps  assumes  a  dwarfed  shape,  with  all  its  leaves 
arranged  so  as  to  form  a  flat  radical  rosette,  like  a  dandelion.  With  in- 
creasing altitude  the  leaves  became  thicker,  often  smaller,  and  deeper 
green  in  colour.  The  subterranean  parts  of  the  plants  at  the  higher 
stations  were  much  more  developed  relatively  to  the  parts  above  ground 
than  in  the  lowlands.  These  facts  prove  that  the  forms  of  the  Alpine 
plants  are  largely  determined  by  the  external  conditions  ;  and,  as  these 
structural  modifications  have  been  shown  above  to  be  of  direct  advantage 
to  the  plant,  we  are  entitled  to  say  that  the  Alpine  plants  are  so  consti- 
tuted that  they  adapt  themselves  to  their  surroundings. 

But  it  is  not  alone  on  the  structural  characteristics  of  the  Alpine  plants 
that  the  Alpine  climate  acts  in  a  manner  which  aids  them  to  resist  the 
trying  nature  of  surrounding  conditions.  Some  plants  that  are  annual  in 
the  plains  become  perennial  in  the  Alps — for  example,  the  annual 
meadow  grass  (Poa  annua).     Again,  seeds  ripened  in  intense  sunlight,  or 


CLIMATE  AND  VEGETATION   OF  THE  ALPS.  CXV 

in  dry  places,  germinate  more  rapidly  than  those  matured  in  the  shade 
or  in  damp  regions.  This  character  is  doubtless  a  great  advantage  to 
Alpine  plants,  which  have  only  a  short  active  season.  It  is  known  that  if 
seeds  of  cereals,  which  have  absorbed  water  and  become  swollen,  be 
frozen  a  number  of  them  will  be  killed,  but  those  that  survive  will  ger- 
minate much  more  rapidly  than  seeds  not  frozen  ;  and  it  is  further  esta- 
blished that  potatoes  kept  frozen  for  a  time  during  winter  will  shoot  up 
more  rapidly  than  specimens  kept  in  warmer  places.  Hence  it  seems 
probable  that  the  very  severity  of  the  cold  at  high  altitudes  causes  the 
Alpine  plants  to  shoot  up  with  greater  rapidity  when  spring-time  does  set 
in.  This  hastened  development  in  flowers  growing  at  considerable  alti- 
tudes is  to  be  seen  in  the  times  of  flowering  of  plants  found  also  in  the 
lowlands.  Thus,  for  instance,  Gnaphalium  dioicum,  Gentiana  germanica, 
and  Dianthus  superbus  are  in  full  flower  in  the  Alps  in  July,  whereas  in 
the  valleys  they  scarcely  open  their  flowers  in  August. 

As  to  the  precise  factors  in  the  Alpine  climate  which  induce  the 
structural  changes  above  mentioned  it  is  not  easy  to  speak  with  any  con- 
fidence. The  intensity  of  the  light,  and  the  low  temperature  at  night, 
both  work  in  the  same  direction,  retarding  the  growth  of  the  stem,  and 
thus  rendering  it  dwarfed,  with  close-set  leaves.  The  rarefaction  of  the 
air  has  no  influence  in  this  direction  ;  in  fact  it  appears  to  operate  in  an 
opposite  manner,  for  stems  grow  more  rapidly  in  rarefied  air  than  in  air 
at  ordinary  atmospheric  pressures.  The  intensity  of  the  light  is,  at  any 
rate,  partially  responsible  for  the  relatively  increased  thickness  of  the 
leaves.  In  confirmation  of  this  view  we  find  Arabis  anachortica,  a  sup- 
posed species  differing  from  A.  alpina  in  having  thin  papery  leaves, 
occurs  only  in  the  shady  hollows  of  rocks.  On  removing  it  to  Kew  it 
changed  into  A.  alpina,  the  papery  consistence  of  the  leaves  being  thus 
induced  by  the  peculiar  habitat,  and  the  plant  proving  to  be  merely  a 
variety  of  A.  alpina.  Zahlbriicknera paradoxa  and  Saxifraga  arachnoides 
occupy  similar  shady  cavities  in  rocks,  and  have  thin,  papery  leaves,  pro- 
bably for  the  same  reason.  Alpine  plants  in  exposed  positions  have,  for 
the  most  part,  leathery  or  hairy  leaves,  whereas  among  those  growing  in 
shaded  ravines,  torrent  beds,  &c,  we  find  plants  with  more  delicate  leaves. 
Finally  it  has  been  shown  by  experiments  on  lowland  plants  that  in- 
creased illumination  tends  to  cause  increased  thickness  of  the  leaf,  and 
that  dryness  of  the  air  has  the  same  effect,  tending  to  increase  the 
hairiness  of  leaves. 

iii.  The  Flowers  of  Alpine  Plants. — The  first  impression  one  has  on 
seeing  Alpine  flowers  is  that  they  are  more  beautiful  and  more  brilliant 
than  lowland  plants.  It  is,  however,  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
flowers  of  Alpine  plants  are  larger  than  those  of  their  relations  in  low- 
lying  lands  ;  in  fact,  the  reverse  is  sometimes  the  case.  As  a  rule  the 
flowers  of  Alpine  species  are  about  the  same  size  as  those  of  lowland 
species  belonging  to  the  same  genus.  It  is  the  smaller  size  of  the  leaves 
of  the  Alpine  species,  the  frequent  crowding  of  the  flowers,  which  thus 
form  bright  and  isolated  patches  on  the  ground,  and  the  increased  depth 
of  tone  of  the  floral  tints,  that,  taken  together,  give  rise  to  the  illusion 
that  flowers  growing  high  up  on  the  Alps  are  larger  than  similar  flowers 
growing  in  the  plains.     The  brilliancy  of  colour  is,  to  a  certain  extent, 


Cxvi  -  INTRODUCTION. 

directly  caused  by  the  Alpine  conditions.  If  we  examine  individuals  of 
the  same  species  growing  at  different  heights  we  find  that  with  increasing 
altitude  there  is  generally  a  deepening  of  the  tints  of  the  flowers  ;  for 
instance,  the  light  blue  of  the  forget-me-not  becomes  deeper,  the  yellow 
of  hawkweeds  tends  towards  orange.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the 
colours  or  shades  of  Alpine  flowers  change  when  the  plants  are  cultivated 
in  gardens.  In  any  family  of  flowering  plants  in  which  flowers  having 
different  tints  occur  it  is  often  found  that  the  yellow  flowers  are  the 
simplest  and  most  lowly  organised,  and  that  the  blue  flowers  are  the 
most  highly  organised.  Further,  it  is  known  that,  speaking  broadly,  in 
a  family  the  successive  advance  of  the  complication  of  the  flowers 
corresponds  more  or  less  to  the  colours  in  the  following  order  :  yellow, 
white,  pink,  red,  crimson,  violet,  blue.  In  Alpine  flowers  there  is  a 
larger  percentage  of  the  colours  corresponding  genetically  to  high 
organisation  than  there  is  in  the  lowland.  For  instance,  the  yellow  of 
the  lowland  primrose  and  cowslip  is  supplemented  by  the  violet  tints  of 
several  species  in  the  Alps.  There  is  a  pink-flowered  Alpine  saxifrage 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  yellow  and  white-flowered  species.  An  orange- 
red  Alpine  hawkweed  contrasts  with  the  paler  yellow  lowland  species. 
There  are  many  flowers  which  are  violet,  or  brilliant  sapphire,  or  deep 
ultramarine  (Campanula,  Phytewna,  Saussurea) ;  the  gentians  vary  in 
their  different  species  from  yellow,  whitish  green,  to  deep  yet  vivid  blue; 
the  speedwells  ( Veronica)  from  pink  to  sapphire,  with  a  central  spot, 
white  or  yellow,  fringed  with  orange  or  vermilion. 

Frequently  too  the  Alpine  flowers  have  stronger  scents,  and  pour  out 
more  honey  than  their  lowland  allies.  The  increased  yield  of  honey  of 
Alpine  flowers  is  illustrated  by  observations  of  the  average  yield  of  hives 
in  the  Pyrenees,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  (there  were,  at  the  time 
of  observation,  no  less  than  19,829  hives  in  the  Eastern  Pyreneesr 
scattered  at  altitudes  varying  from  o  to  1,500  metres,  or  4,921  ft.)  : — 


Altitude  in  Metres 

Mean  Annual  Yield  of  Hives 
in  Kilogrammes  of  Honey 

O-30O 

3-06 

3OO-60O 

4-08 

60O-9OO 

5'00 

900-1,200 

7-00 

1,200-1,500 

933 

Bonnier  has  shown  that,  comparing  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
but  growing  at  different  altitudes,  the  amount  of  honey  poured  out  by 
the  flower  increases  with  the  altitude,  and  that  often  there  is  a  parallel 
increase  in  the  strength  of  the  scent  of  the  flowers.  Altogether  the 
heightened  brilliancy  of  Alpine  flowers,  the  increased  yield  of  honey, 
and  often  of  the  more  potent  scents  are  to  be  attributed,  partly  at 
any  rate,  to  the  direct  action  of  the  Alpine  conditions  on  the  plants 
themselves. 

It  is  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  these  facts  would  afford  a  sufficient 
basis  for  the  explanation  of  the  colours  of  Alpine  flowers,  because  it  is 
still  doubtful  whether  such  changes  as  are  merely  wrought  by  the  direct 
action  of  environment  are  ever  hereditary.     Still  more  problematical  is  it 


CLIMATE  AND  VEGETATION   OF   THE  ALPS.  CXV11 

whether,  in  consequence  of  such  direct  action  of  the  surroundings  ope- 
rating for  generations,  a  plant  with,  say,  yellow  flowers  could  give  rise  to 
descendants  possessed  of  blue  flowers.  A  second  explanation  has  been 
offered — namely,  that  the  rarity  of  insects  in  the  Alps  necessitates  increased 
powers  of  attraction,  in  order  that  cross-fertilisation  by  their  agency  may 
be  sufficiently  secured.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  both  the  flora 
and  the  insect  fauna  become  poorer  in  species  as  the  Alps  are  ascended, 
and  additional  attraction  would  only  be  necessary  if  the  flower-visiting 
insects  decreased  in  numbers  at  a  greater  rate  than  did  the  flowers  fertilised 
by  their  agency,  or  if  the  opportunities  of  visiting  flowers  were  lessened. 
As  regards  the  absolute  number  of  flowers  and  insects  it  is  impossible  to 
judge.  It  is  possible  only  to  glean  an  indication  of  their  relative  numbers 
by  comparing  the  insect  visitors  of  flowers  in  the  Alps  and  in  the  plains. 
H.  Miiller  found  that  Alpine  flowers  had  at  least  as  many  sorts  of  visitors 
as  flowers  in  the  plains.  In  fact,  he  showed  that  some  flowers  in  the  Alps 
had  visits  from  a  larger  number  of  varieties  of  insects  than  those  in  the 
plains  ;  for  instance,  Polygonum  bistorta,  whilst  visited  by  only  7  varieties 
of  insects  in  the  plains,  had  38  sorts  of  visitors  in  the  Alps.  Selecting  12 
of  the  most  frequently  visited  plants  in  the  plains,  and  comparing  their 
visitors  with  the  visitors  in  the  Alps,  the  numbers  were  found  to  be  80 
and  85  respectively.  By  this  method  he  concluded  that  there  is  at  least 
as  great  a  probability  of  cross-fertilisation  in  the  Alps  as  there  is  in  the 
lowlands,  and  also  as  proportionately  great  a  number  of  insect  visitors. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Alpine  conditions  render  the  flowers 
more  attractive  by  increased  supplies  of  honey  and  stronger  scents. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  their  relations  to  insect  visitors  insect  ferti- 
lised flowers  may  be  ranged  under  five  general  heads  : — 

a.  Po.  A. — Flowers  visited  for  their  pollen  alone,  or  for  honey  which  is 
freely  exposed  {e.g.  elder,  Umbelliferce).  Such  flowers  are  visited  by  all 
classes  of  flower-visiting  insects. 

b.  A.  B. — Flowers  with  half  concealed  honey  {e.g.  buttercups,  saxifrages). 
Compared  with  the  first  class  there  is  a  decrease  in  the  variety  of  visitors, 
and  a  relative  increase  in  the  number  of  insect  visitors  with  long  tongues. 

c.  B.  and  B. — Flowers  {e.g.  geraniums)  and  heads  of  flowers  {e.g. 
daisy  family)  with  completely  concealed  honey.  This  is  an  advance  on  the 
second  class,  but  yet  the  flowers  are  not  restricted  to  any  particular  class 
of  insects. 

d.  H. — Bee  flowers  {e.g.  pea  family,  gentians).  In  these  the  honey 
cannot  be  reached  by  insects  with  short  tongues,  and  so  these  flowers  are 
specially  adapted  for  bees.  Under  this  head  there  are  three  sub-groups 
specially  adapted  for  (i)  ordinary  bees,  (ii)  humble  bees,  (iii)  wasps. 

e.  F.— Butterfly  and  moth  flowers  {e.g.  pinks,  ordinary  honeysuckles). 
These  are  especially  adapted  for  Lepidoptera,  and  have  their  honey  so 
deeply  stored  that  it  is  not  accessible  to  any  insects  save  butterflies  and 
moths. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  insect  fauna  of  a  region  will  be  more  or  less 
reflected  in  the  forms  of  the  flowers.  The  following  table,  condensed 
from  Mailer's  observations,  summarised  by  Loew,  illustrates  the  relative 
parts  played  by  the  different  classes  of  insects  on  the  groups  of  flowers 
mentioned  above  : — 


INTRODUCTION. 


Group  of  Flowers 


Region 


Percentage  of  Visits  by 


Butterflies 
and  Moths 


Po.  A.  and  A.  B. 


B.  and  B. 


H. 


Plains 

Alps 

Plains 

Alps 

Plains 

Alps 

Plains 

Alps 


17 

18S 
13-1 
47 '2 
iJ-6 
45 '7 
76S 
79 '6 


Bees  with     |     Bees  with 

Long  Short 

Tongues,     I      Tongues 

including     (     and  other 

Humble  Bee?  Hymenoptera 


6-i 

7'4 
27-4 
12-6 
59  '6 
47 '5 

8-7 


347 
13-8 
26  3 
107 
i6'3 

2'0 

5'9 
27 


Flies, 

Beetles, 

and  other 

Insects 


56-5 

597 
32-9 
29-2 

8'5 

4-6 

147 

9-0 


This  table  illustrates  the  relative  decrease  in  the  number  of  the 
Hymenoptera,  especially  the  short-tongued  bees,  but  the  increased 
number  of  humble  bees  in  the  Alps.  It  also  shows  clearly  the  vastly 
increased  importance  of  butterflies  and  moths  as  fertilising  agents. 
These  facts  stand  out  too  in  the  composition  of  the  flora.  There  is  an 
increased  number  of  flowers  belonging  to  group  F.,  especially  adapted  for 
Lepidoptera  (butterflies  and  moths).  To  select  an  example,  the  genus 
Primula  is  represented  in  the  plains  by  no  flower  adapted  for  Lepidotera, 
but  has  one  species  adapted  for  humble  bees,  viz.  P.  farinosa.  There 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  six  Alpine  species  adapted  for  Lepidoptera,  viz. 
a  variety  of  P.  farinosa,  and  the  species  P.  integrifolia,  P.  villosa, 
P.  viscosa,  P.  longiflora,  and  P.  Allionii.  The  curious  case  oi  P .  farinosa, 
in  which  there  are  two  forms,  Alpine  and  lowland,  adapted  for  Lepi- 
doptera and  humble  bees  respectively,  leads  on  to  the  interesting  fact 
that  in  the  Alps  there  are  a  number  of  flowers  which  are  transitional 
between  humble-bee  flowers  (H.)  and  Lepidoptera  flowers  (F.)  Such, 
for  instance,  are  the  Alpine  variety  of  the  pansy  ( Viola  tricolor)  and  some 
Alpine  gentians  {Gentiana  tenella,  G.  nana,  G.  campestris,  G.  obtusi folia). 
These  transitional  flowers  are,  too,  more  or  less  closely  genetically  related 
to  Alpine  species,  which  are  completely  adapted  for  Lepidoptera  :  Viola 
tricolor  var.  alpestris,  is  allied  to  V.  calcarata  (a  butterfly  flower) ;  the 
transitional  gentians  are  allied  to  G.  verna  and  G.  barbarica,  which  are 
adapted  for  butterflies  ;  P.  farinosa  has  as  close  relations  P.  integrifolia, 
P.  villosa,  and  P.  viscosa.  These  facts  suffice  to  suggest  strongly  that 
in  the  Alps  a  number  of  flowers  have  been  evolved  under  the  influence  of 
Lepidoptera.  Thus  the  peculiar  forms  of  Alpine  flowers  have  been 
developed,  at  least  partially,  under  the  influence  of  the  Alpine  insects, 
and  there  is  no  reason  for  disbelieving  that  the  insects  have  had  a  share 
too  in  the  evolution  of  the  colours  and  scents  of  the  flowers.  In  particular 
Miiller  attributes  to  butterflies  the  evolution  of  a  large  number  of  flowers 
ranging  from  pink  to  crimson,  such  as  Alpine  primulas,  pinks  (Dianthus), 
Siiene  acaulis,  Erica  carnea,  &c.  Flowers  of  these  tints  are,  in  general, 
much  visited  by  butterflies.  Further,  the  clove-like  smell  is  characteristic 
of  many  butterfly  flowers  (pinks,  Daphne  striata).    The  increased  variety 


CLIMATE  AND  VEGETATION  OF  THE   ALPS.  CX1X 

of  tints  in  the  bee  flowers  is  associated  by  Miiller  with  the  relatively 
greater  number  of  humble  bees  in  the  Alps,  and  he  regards  flies  as 
responsible  for  the  abundance  of  white-flowered  Alsinece,  and  of  the 
whitish,  yellowish,  or  speckled  saxifrages  which  belong  to  group  A.  (^see 
the  preceding  table.)  The  colours  and  scents  of  the  Alpine  flowers  are 
hence  to  be  attributed  partly  to  the  direct  action  of  the  environment  on 
the  individual  plants,  and  partly  to  the  selecting  influence  exerted  by 
insects  on  the  race.  It  is  extremely  interesting  to  note  that,  just  as  the 
vegetative  part  of  the  individual  plant  responds  to  the  Alpine  conditions 
in  a  fashion  beneficial  to  itself,  so  also  do  the  flowers  ;  the  heightened 
colour,  the  increased  excretion  of  honey,  and  the  stronger  scents  induced 
in  each  individual  by  the  Alpine  conditions  bring  more  visitors  to  the 
flowers,  and  thus  tend  to  atone  for  the  shortness  of  the  flowering  season. 

One  additional  point  with  reference  to  the  flowers  of  Alpine  plants  is 
that,  as  compared  with  those  in  the  lowlands,  there  is  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  flowers  habitually  self-fertilised.  This  increase  takes  place 
at  the  expense  of  the  flowers  which  are  capable  of  self-fertilisation,  but 
are  usually  cross-fertilised.  The  number  of  exclusively  cross-fertilised 
flowers  remains  relatively  the  same  in  the  Alps  and  in  the  plains.  This 
increase  of  self-fertilisation  is  possibly  associated  with  the  shortness  of 
the  active  season  and  the  necessity  for  forming  seeds  quickly.  It  is, 
however,  significant  that  the  increase  in  self-fertilisation  takes  place 
nearly  exclusively  in  that  class  (Po.  A.)  which  is  normally  (in  the  low- 
lands) visited  least  by  Lepidoptera  and  humble  bees,  and  is  therefore 
least  likely  to  profit  by  their  relative  abundance  and  most  likely  to  suffer 
from  the  poverty  in  short-tongued  bees. 

iv.  Origin  of  the  Alpine  Flora. — It  is  impossible  to  discuss,  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  the  present  article,  the  origin  of  the  Alpine  flora, 
particularly  as  eminent  authorities,  such  as  Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  Dr. 
Christ,  and  Mr.  John  Ball,  have  differed  considerably  in  their  views  on 
this  subject. 

The  first  important  fact  is  that  many  species  of  plants  found  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  Alps  occur  also  in  the  Arctic  regions,  but  are  absent 
from  the  intervening  low  country.  They  afford  examples  of  \  discon- 
tinuous distribution.'  According  to  Dr.  Christ's  estimate  there  are  294 
species  of  plants  which  live  almost  exclusively  in  the  higher  regions  of 
the  Alps,  and  of  these  100  reappear  in  the  Arctic  regions.  There  is  a 
second  category  of  Alpine  species — namely,  those  which  do  not  occur  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  but  are  found  on  distant  mountains,  though  they  do 
not  inhabit  the  plains  separating  the  latter  from  the  Alps.  For  example, 
Mr.  John  Ball  calculated  that  17  per  cent,  of  the  Alpine  species  occur  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  while  as  many  as  25  per  cent,  reappear  in  the  Altai 
mountains,  in  Asia.  How  are  we  to  explain  this  sporadic  appearance  of 
plants  in  distant,  isolated  regions  ?  We  can  no  longer  assume  that  they 
were  created  separately  at  the  various  spots  in  which  they  occur.  It 
follows  that  they  were  evolved  at  some  spot  from  which  at  some  time 
they  travelled  to  their  present  scattered  quarters.  It  is  impossible  to 
assume  that  under  present  conditions  the  seeds  were  conveyed  by  the 
agency  of  wind  or  birds  from  one  distant  region  to  another,  although 
intervening  mountains   might  be  regarded  as  stepping-stones  ;   for  we 


cxx  INTRODUCTION. 

find  that  the  number  of  identical  species  at  widely  separated  spots  is  too 
great  to  permit  of  this  explanation,  and,  furthermore,  the  agreement 
between  the  floras  of  different  mountain  chains  is  by  no  means  propor- 
tional to  their  geographical  proximity,  even  when  their  climates  are 
closely  alike. 

It  is  found  that  some  mountain  plants  reappear  on  the  sea-shore, 
though  absent  from  the  country  separating  the  mountains  from  the 
sea-shore.  Though  sea-shore  plants  have  in  general  a  wide  distribution 
it  is  obviously  impossible  that  the  sea-shore  should  play  more  than  a 
very  limited  part  as  a  pathway  for  plants  dwelling  on  the  different 
mountain  chains  of  the  earth.  Under  present  conditions,  then,  the 
existing  plains  form  an  impassable  barrier  between  the  Alps  and  the 
Arctic  regions  or  distant  mountain  chains.  In  particular  the  climate  in 
these  plains  is  not  suited  to  the  high  Alpine  plants,  which,  furthermore, 
would  be  probably  killed  out  by  the  competition  of  typical  lowland 
forms.  If  these  conclusions  are  correct  we  may  assume  that  the 
plains  did  not  always  act  as  barriers,  but  that  conditions  reigned 
which  permitted  free  communication  between  the  extreme  north  and 
distant  mountain  chains.  For  the  realisation  of  this  scheme  we  must 
look  to  the  Glacial  Period,  when  the  glaciers  of  the  extreme  north 
descended  southwards,  and  the  glaciers  from  the  mountains  stretched  far 
north  to  meet  them.  For  instance,  during  the  Glacial  Period  in  Europe 
the  Scandinavian  glaciers  descended  south  as  far  as  Germany,  while  the 
Alpine  glaciers  extended  north  into  the  same  country.  This  condition  of 
things  would  enable  the  Arctic  and  mountain  forms  to  mingle  in  the 
lowlands.  As  the  climate  ameliorated  the  fixed  flora  would  be  either 
driven  north  or  up  the  mountains  till  the  present  distribution  of  forms 
was  the  result.  The  majority  of  eminent  botanists  agree  in  regarding 
the  Glacial  Period  as  the  key  to  the  distribution  of  high  Alpine  forms, 
but  differ  as  to  the  precise  region  of  origin  of  the  constituents.  Mr.  John 
Ball,  however,  was  of  opinion  that  for  the  explanation  of  the  discon- 
tinuous distribution  of  mountain  species  it  was  necessary  to  look  further 
back  than  the  Glacial  Period.  In  his  opinion  the  mountains  were  centres 
of  evolution  of  new  species,  which  then  streamed  down  into  the  plains. 
Against  this  view  it  may  be  urged  that  there  is  often  clear  evidence  that 
high  mountain  forms  (like  Alpine  species)  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
have  been  derived  from  lowland  forms,  whereas  there  is  no  evidence  of 
the  reverse  process  having  taken  place.  Furthermore  it  is  not  found 
that  the  richness  of  the  flora  of  a  region  is  proportional  to  its  possessions 
in  the  shape  of  mountains  :  Australia,  for  instance,  poor  as  it  is  in  moun- 
tains, is  rich  in  endemic  forms. 

Amongst  Alpine  plants  some  are  clearly  derived  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean-Oriental region,  such  as  Erica  carnea,  Crocus  vernus,  Colchicum 
alpinum.  These  Mediterranean  types  are  not  numerous  (only  48  species) 
in  the  Alps,  but  become  more  so  in  southern  mountains. 

In  a  previous  section  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  fact  that 
the  master  key  to  the  structure  of  Alpine  plants  lies  in  their  need  to  guard 
against  disproportinate  loss  of  water.  For  plants  inhabiting  deserts  and 
dry  open  steppes  there  is  the  same  imperative  necessity.  Hence  it  is  a 
matter  of  no  surprise  that  certain  steppe  plants  should  have  settled  in  the 


CLIMATE   AND   VEGETATION   OF   THE  ALPS.  CXX1 

Alps  and  have  even  given  birth  to  Alpine  species.  Some  species  of 
Saussurea,  and  Artemisia,  Edelweiss  {finaphalium  leontopodium),  all 
seem  to  be  steppe  plants  ;  in  fact,  the  last  named,  and  Alpine  species  of  the 
first,  are  found  on  the  steppes  of  Northern  Asia.  Oxytropis  and  Astra- 
galus are  typical  genera  inhabiting  steppes  and  deserts,  where  they  are 
represented  by  hundreds  of  species,  though  in  the  Alps  each  has  only 
half  a  dozen  species. 

In  addition  to  all  the  forms  discussed  above,  and  many  ubiquitous  forms 
found  alike  in  the  Alps  and  in  the  lowlands,  there  are  a  number  of  species 
which  are  found  in  the  Alps  but  nowhere  else.  In  the  Alps  there  are 
(according  to  Dr.  Christ)  about  182  endemic  species.  These  peculiarly 
Alpine  plants  exceed  in  beauty  those  which  are  common  to  the  Alps  and 
the  Arctic  regions.  Of  the  beautiful  gentians  one  alone,  Gentiana  nivalis, 
reappears  in  the  Arctic  regions.  In  the  extreme  north  Primula  farinosa 
alone  represents  the  Alpine  primulas.  The  same  general  rule  holds  good 
for  the  bright-coloured  species  of  Androsace,  Soldanella,  Campanula, 
Phyteuma,  and  Viola,  whose  Alpine  species  do  not  reappear  in  the  far 
north,  or  are  only  represented  there  by  a  single  species.  As  might  be 
anticipated  from  considerations  set  forth  in  iii,  above,  the  beauty  of  many 
of  the  brightest  Alpine  flowers  has  been  gained  in  the  Alps  themselves. 

List  of  Books. 

Among  a  very  large  number  of  books  and  articles  the  following  are  specially 
recommended  : — 

Climate. 

G.   Berndt.     Der  Fohn.     Gottingen,  1886.     (2nd  edition.      1896.) 
J.  Hann.     Handbuch  der  Klimatologie.     Stuttgart,  1883  (2nd  edition,  1898). 
Pm  Blumer-ZweifeL     Was  ist  Fohn?  (article  in  the   'Jahrbuch'  of  the  Swiss 
Alpine  Club,  published  at  Bern  in  1895,  vol.  xxx.  pp.  320-337.) 

Botany. 

John  Ball.     On  the  Origin  of  the  European  Flora  (in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the 

Royal  Geographical  Society'  for  1879). 
John  Ball.     The  Distribution  of  Plants  on  the  South  Side  of  the  Alps.     (Pub- 
lished in   1896  by  the  Linnean  Society  in  vol.  v.  part  4  of  the  2nd  series  of 
its  botanical  *  Transactions.') 
A.    W.  Bennett.     The  Flora  of  the  Alps.     2  vols,    with   120   coloured    plates. 

London,  1896. 
G.  Bonnier.     Les  Plantes  de  la  Region  Alpine  et  leurs  Rapports  avec  le  Climat 

('  Annales  de  G^ographie,'  1895,  pp.  393-415)- 
H.   Christ.     La  Flore  de  la  Suisse  et  ses  Origines  (Bale  and  Geneva.     German 

edition,  1879.     French  edition,  1883). 
Loew.     Bluten-biologische  Floristik.     Stuttgart,  1894. 
//.   Midler.     Alpenblumen,  ihre   Befruchtung  durch  Insekten,  und  ihre  Anpa- 

sungen  an  dieselben.     Leipzig,  1 881. 
K.  W.  von  delta  Torre.     The  Tourist's  Guide  to  the  Flora  of  the  Alps.     Trans- 
lated by  A.  W.  Bennett.     London,  1886. 

Accompanied  by  A.  Hartinger's  500  Plates  of  Alpine  Plants.  (Genn*rj 
text  and  Plates  appeared  in  1882  and  1884  respectively  ;  2nd  edition  <»l 
the  Plates  completed  in  1897  ;  all  published  at  Vienna  by  the  German 
and  Austrian  Alpine  Club. ) 


CXXll  INTRODUCTION. 

Art.  XIV. — The  Snow  Region  of  the  Alps. 

Glaciers. — Avalanches.* 

A  large  part  of  the  heat  which  the  sun  sends  to  the  earth  is  expended 
in  converting  water  into  vapour,  and  raising  it  into  the  atmosphere.  As 
soon  as  any  portion  of  the  atmosphere  becomes  over-saturated  with 
vapour,  this  is  precipitated,  at  first  in  the  form  of  cloud,  and,  if  not  re- 
absorbed, ultimately  reaches  the  earth  again  as  rain.  Several  causes, 
which  it  is  beyond  our  limits  to  discuss,  combine  to  lower  the  temperature 
of  the  air  as  it  is  raised  above  the  earth's  surface,  and  at  a  sufficient 
height  it  becomes  so  cold  that  whatever  vapour  is  condensed  takes  the 
form  of  snow  and  sleet.  In  falling  to  the  earth  this  is  usually  reconverted 
into  water,  but  in  high  mountain  districts,  where  the  temperature  of  the 
surface  is  also  low,  the  greater  part  of  the  aqueous  vapour  returned  from 
the  atmosphere  retains  the  form  of  snow.  When  the  air  is  calm,  the 
snow  of  the  High  Alps  consists  of  regular  crystalline  forms  of  exquisite 
beauty,  being  wonderfully  varied  modifications  of  a  six-rayed  star.  When 
the  air  is  disturbed,  the  snow  assumes  a  new  condition,  which  is  that  of 
small  frozen  pellets,  little  larger  than  a  pin's  head.  It  is  this  which  forms 
that  blinding  snow-dust  well  known  to  those  who  have  ever  experienced 
the  tourmente.  The  snow  that  falls  on  the  exposed  ridges  and  steep 
slopes  does  not  long  remain  there.  The  larger  portion  is  generally 
carried  away  by  the  wind  ;  a  further  portion  accumulates  till  the  slope 
becomes  too  steep,  when  it  slides  down  in  an  avalanche  ;  and  a  small 
part  is  disposed  of  by  melting  and  evaporation.  The  result  is,  that 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  snow  falling  on  high  mountains  is  retained  in  the 
hollows,  or  on  the  more  level  parts  of  the  surface.  If  these  hollows  arid 
plateaux  are  below  the  level  of  perpetual  snow,  or,  in  other  words,  if  they 
are  so  situated  that  the  annual  melting  equals  the  quantity  of  fresh  snow 
annually  supplied,  no  accumulation  can  take  place.  A  certain  quantity 
of  snow  is  gathered  into  these  storehouses  every  winter,  and  is  removed 
during  the  following  summer,  the  same  process  being  renewed  year  after 
year.  This  condition  of  things  is  seen  in  the  Carpathians,  the  ranges  of 
Central  Spain,  and  many  other  European  mountains,  whose  summits  rise 
above  the  level  of  perpetual  snow. 

The  case  is  otherwise  when  the  winter  snows  are  gathered  in  hollows 
and  plateaux  where  the  rate  of  melting  is  less  than  the  annual  supply. 
The  first  impression  of  a  person  speculating  on  the  subject  would  be,  that 
under  such  circumstances  the  accumulation  would  go  on  without  limit, 
and  that  a  layer  of  snow  constantly  increasing  in  thickness  would  be 

*  In  giving  a  brief  sketch  of  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  phenomena  of  the  snow 
region  of  the  Alps,  the  writer  (J.  B.)  involuntarily  enters  upon  a  discussion  which  has  furnished 
abundant  matter  of  controversy,  now  in  great  part  set  at  rest.  Those  who  desire  fuller  information 
may  refer  to  the  original  writings  of  Rendu,  Forbes,  Agassiz,  and  Tyndall,  or  may  satisfy  them- 
selves with  an  article  in  the  Edinburgh  Revietv  for  January  1861.  For  simple  and  lucid  accounts 
of  ice  and  its  action  the  reader  should  refer  to  the  late  Prof.  Tyndall's  The  Forms  of  Water  in 
Clouds  and  Rivers,  Ice  and  Glaciers  (1872),  and  Prof.  Bonney's  Ice-Work  Present  and  Past 
(1896) — both  published  in  the  '  International  Scientific '  Series.  The  standard  work  on  Glaciers 
is  now  the  Handbuch  der  Gletscherkunde  (Stuttgart,  1885),  by  Prof.  Heim,  of  Zurich  :  a  very  full 
summary  in  English  was  published  by  Mr.  Tuckett  in  vol.  xii.  of  the  A  tyine  Journal. 


THE  SNOW   REGION  OF  THE  ALPS.  Cxxiii 

formed  on  these  parts  of  the  surface.      To  understand  what  actually 
occurs,  a  little  detail  is  necessary. 

The  higher  region  of  the  Alps,  and  other  high  mountains,  is  subjected 
to  a  constant  alteration  between  heat  and  cold.  In  clear  weather  this 
takes  place  between  each  day  and  night  j  in  clouded  weather  the  intervals 
are  longer.  The  sun  shining  upon  the  mass  of  snow-dust  and  minute 
crystals  partially  melts  them,  and  ultimately  fuses  them  together,  till  they 
form  grains  of  larger  size,  which  are  frozen  together  in  compact  particles 
of  ice  during  the  next  interval  of  cold.  At  first  this  process  is  confined 
to  the  uppermost  layer  of  the  snow,  but  as  the  alternate  melting  and 
congelation  are  frequently  renewed,  a  similar  change  extends  through 
the  mass,  which  is  gradually  converted  into  that  peculiar  condition  that 
has  been  called  neve,  or  in  German  Firn.  The  longer  the  exposure  of  a 
layer  of  snow  has  lasted,  the  more  complete  is  the  change  into  neVe" ;  the 
sooner  a  fresh  layer  falls,  the  more  imperfect  will  be  the  conversion  of 
the  older  one. 

A  section  of  the  upper  strata  of  the  neVe,  here  and  there  exposed  on 
the  sides  of  a  crevasse,  shows  successive  layers  whose  upper  surfaces  are 
seen  to  be  more  near  the  condition  of  ice  than  the  interior  portions.  In 
the  lapse  of  years  the  neve  increases  layer  by  layer,  one  of  them  corre- 
sponding to  every  considerable  fall  of  snow,  until  a  considerable  weight 
presses  on  the  lower  and  older  portions  of  the  mass. 

To  understand  what  effects  are  produced  by  this  pressure,  we  must 
bear  in  mind  an  important  property  of  ice,  to  which  the  name  regelation 
has  been  given.  Two  surfaces  of  ice,  at  or  very  near  the  melting-point, 
when  brought  into  contact,  freeze  together  so  completely  that  no  trace  of 
their  original  separating  surface  remains.  Adequate  pressure  applied  to 
a  mass  of  fragments  of  ice,  by  forcing  them  into  positions  where  their 
surfaces  come  into  contact,  causes  regelation,  and  the  closer  the  contact 
the  more  completely  will  the  separate  portions  be  welded  together. 

Such  is  the  change  that  is  effected  in  the  recesses  where  the  Alpine 
snows  are  stored.  Having  been  first  brought  to  the  condition  of  granular 
neve  by  the  sun's  action,  these  grains  are  more  and  more  completely  united 
in  the  deeper  portions  of  the  mass  into  nearly  compact  ice. 

If  the  reservoirs  of  which  we  have  spoken  were  closed  basins  ot 
sufficient  depth,  they  would  simply  become  filled  with  stationary  masses 
of  ice  ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  this  is  not  the  case.  They  partake  of  the 
general  slope  of  the  mountain,  and  each  is  connected  with  the  lower  level 
by  a  valley,  glen,  or  ravine,  through  which  the  snow  would  speedily  flow 
if  it  were  converted  into  water.  But,  under  adequate  pressure,  ice,  and 
especially  such  imperfect  ice  as  is  formed  from  the  neV£,  possesses  a 
considerable  degree  of  plasticity.  It  gives  way  in  the  direction  of  least 
resistance.  A  piece  of  ice  compressed  in  a  mould  yields  until  it  fills  all 
the  inequalities,  and  produces  an  accurate  cast  of  the  mould.  The  vast 
masses  of  neve  that  are  piled  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Alps  yield  in  the 
same  way  to  the  pressure  caused  by  their  own  weight,  and  gradually 
flow  downwards  through  the  channel  of  these  valleys.  In  other  words, 
they  become  glaciers. 

We  now  see  that  the  essential  condition  for  the  formation  of  a  glacier 
is  the  existence  of  a  reservoir  large  enough,  and  at  a  sufficient  height,  to 


CXX1V  INTRODUCTION. 

accumulate  such  a  mass  of  neve  as  will,  by  its  weight,  convert  its  own 
substance  into  ice,  and  force  it  to  flow  in  whatever  direction  it  encounters 
the  least  resistance.  In  moving  onward  the  glacier  conforms  to  the  laws 
that  regulate  the  motion  of  imperfect  fluids.  The  resistance  of  the  sides 
and  the  bed  on  which  it  moves  retards  the  motion  of  the  adjoining 
portions  of  the  ice.  The  centre,  therefore,  moves  faster  than  the  sides, 
and  the  surface  faster  than  the  bottom.  When  the  ice-stream  flows 
through  a  bend  in  the  valley,  the  point  of  most  rapid  motion  is  shifted 
from  the  centre  towards  the  convex  side  of  the  curve.  While  the  ice 
thus  conforms  to  the  laws  of  fluid  motion,  the  internal  changes  by  which 
it  is  enabled  thus  to  comport  itself  are  peculiar,  and  have  no  example 
among  other  bodies  of  which  we  have  experience.  The  nature  of  the 
motion,  involving  constant  changes  in  the  relative  positions  of  the 
particles,  implies  fracture,  which  must  be  frequently  renewed  ;  but  this 
would  speedily  reduce  the  whole  to  a  mass  of  incoherent  fragments,  if  it 
were  not  for  the  property  of  regelation.  At  each  step  in  the  progress  of 
the  glacier  this  repairs  the  damage  done  to  the  continuity  of  the  ice,  and 
by  the  twofold  process  of  fracture  and  regelation  the  glacier  moves 
onward,  constantly  changing  its  form,  yet  in  appearance  an  almost 
continuous  mass  of  solid  ice. 

The  rate  of  progress  of  a  glacier  depends  upon  various  causes,  but 
mainly  on  those  which  would  regulate  its  motion  if  it  were  converted  into 
water — viz.  the  dimensions  of  the  reservoir,  and  the  inclination  of  the 
slope  down  which  it  flows.  It  is  also  influenced  by  temperature  :  the 
nearer  the  ice  is  to  its  melting  point,  the  more  easily  it  yields,  and  the 
faster  it  moves.  It  is  nearly  certain  that  the  cold  of  winter  penetrates 
but  to  a  slight  depth  into  the  interior  of  the  glacier,  and  this  accounts  for 
the  continuance  of  the  motion  in  that  season. 

The  above  description  applies  to  true  glaciers,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
are  rivers  of  ice  flowing  through  definite  channels.  There  are  in  the 
Alps  a  vast  number  of  smaller  accumulations  of  neve,  gathered  into  the 
lesser'  hollows  and  recesses  of  the  surface,  that  give  birth  to  minor 
glaciers,  or  glaciers  of  the  second  order,  in  which  the  phenomena  of  the 
true  glaciers  are  imperfectly  exhibited.  In  these  the  conversion  of  the 
neve  into  ice  is  incomplete,  and  the  approach  to  the  law  of  semi-fluid 
motion  but  slight.  These  secondary  glaciers  usually  lie  on  steep  declivi- 
ties, and  their  downward  motion,  which  is  trifling  as  compared  with  that 
of  the  greater  ice-streams,  is  mainly  effected  by  sliding  on  the  underlying 
surface  of  rock. 

Returning  to  the  description  of  the  true  glaciers,  we  have  next  to 
remark  that  although  the  ice  of  which  they  are  composed  is  amenable  to 
pressure,  it  is  devoid  of  the  other  chief  attribute  of  imperfect  fluids  or 
viscous  bodies  :  it  is  but  slightly  capable  of  yielding  to  tension.  When 
the  general  movement  of  the  glacier  tends  to  draw  asunder  adjoining 
portions  of  ice,  this  is  unable  to  obey  the  strain,  the  mass  is  rent  through, 
and  in  this  manner  are  formed  the  crevasses.  These  are  among  the 
best  known  and  most  characteristic  of  glacier  phenomena.  They  are 
most  numerous  and  widest  in  summer,  when  the  glacier  moves  most 
rapidly,  and  are  partially  or  completely  closed  up  in  winter,  when  the 
onward  flow  of  the  ice  is  slackened.     But  the  same  causes  recur  year 


THE  SNOW   REGION   OF  THE  ALPS.  CXXV 

after  year,  subject  to  slight  variation  owing  to  the  differences  of  seasons, 
and,  as  a  general  rule,  crevasses  reappear  annually  in  the  same  places, 
though  the  ice  in  which  the  rent  takes  place  may  have  been  some 
hundreds  of  feet  higher  up  the  stream  in  the  preceding  season.  Crevasses 
are  at  first  narrow  fissures,  and  are  gradually  enlarged  by  the  onward 
motion  of  the  glacier,  increasing  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet  in  width, 
and  sometimes  reaching  to  a  great  depth.  The  positions  in  which 
crevasses  usually  oppose  the  most  serious  obstacle  to  the  Alpine  traveller, 
are  those  where  the  bed  of  the  glacier  suddenly  changes  its  inclination 
from  a  gentle  slope  to  a  steeper  declivity.  The  ice,  as  it  bends  over  the 
convex  surface,  is  rent  by  transverse  crevasses  of  great  depth  and  width, 
which  often  cross  the  entire  breadth  of  the  ice-stream,  and  these  are 
repeated  as  each  successive  portion  arrives  at  the  same  point,  so  that  the 
result  is  to  form  a  series  of  deep  parallel  trenches,  divided  by  massive 
walls,  or  ramparts  of  ice,  giving  the  glacier  when  seen  from  a  distance 
the  appearance  of  a  gigantic  staircase.  It  not  unfrequently  happens 
that,  in  the  same  places  where  the  ice  is  thus  rent  by  one  set  of  parallel 
crevasses,  another  system  of  crevasses  may  be  formed  running  trans- 
versely across  the  first.  In  this  way  the  whole  of  the  surface  is  cut  up 
into  isolated  tower-shaped  masses.  When  first  formed  the  sides  of 
crevasses  are  more  or  less  vertical  walls,  with  well-defined  edges,  but  the 
exposed  parts  of  the  ice  are  rapidly  attacked  by  the  sun,  and  even  by  the 
air  and  by  rain.  In  a  short  time  the  flat-topped  ramparts  and  turrets 
have  their  upper  edges  eaten  away  till  the  broad  rampart  becomes  a  sharp 
ridge,  and  the  tower  a  pointed  pinnacle.  This  is  the  origin  of  those 
singular  and  beautiful  forms  that  are  often  seen  towards  the  lower  part 
of  an  icefall  in  the  greater  glaciers,  where  the  crevasses  penetrate  to  a 
depth  that  must  be  reckoned  by  hundreds  of  feet. 

A  peculiar  sort  of  crevasse,  somewhat  different  in  its  origin  from  the 
rest,  is  best  known  by  the  German  name  Bergschrund.  This  arises 
along  the  line  of  separation  between  the  fields  of  neve  that  partake 
more  or  less  of  the  downward  movement  of  the  glacier,  and  the  upper 
snow-slopes  that  remain  attached  to  the  rocky  skeleton  of  the  mountain. 
A  continuous  fissure,  sometimes  20  or  30  feet  in  width,  marks  the  separa- 
tion, and  interposes  a  formidable  obstacle  to  the  traveller  who  seeks  to 
reach  the  higher  peaks. 

When  the  upper  mountain  slopes  are  covered  by  a  considerable  depth 
of  neve',  the  crevasses  naturally  cut  through  the  neve,  and  expose  sections 
showing  the  outcrop  of  the  successive  beds  of  snow  from  which  it  was 
originally  formed.  When  it  is  cut  up  by  the  intersection  of  transverse 
crevasses,  the  neVe'  often  appears  in  the  form  of  huge  square  blocks. 
These  blocks  of  creamy  ne've'  were  known,  Saussure  tells  us  (§§  1975  and 
2054),  in  his  time  at  Chamonix  as  '  seracs,'  this  being  the  name  given  to 
the  compact  white  cheese  obtained  from  '  petit  lait,'  or  whey,  and 
pressed  together  in  square  wooden  rectangular  boxes.  But  the  name 
'  seVacs '  is  nowadays  commonly  extended  to  all  pinnacles  or  blocks, 
whether  composed  of  ne've'  or  of  ice,  and  particularly  to  those  seen  in  an 
icefall. 

A  remarkable  phenomenon,  seen  only  on  the  greater  glaciers,  is  that 
presented  by  the  so  called  moulins.     During  the  summer,  when  the  sun 


CXXV1  INTRODUCTION. 

acts  with  great  force,  the  melted  ice  soon  forms  rivulets  on  the  surface. 
In  portions  of  the  glacier  intersected  by  crevasses  the  superficial  water  is 
quickly  carried  off ;  but  where  the  ice  is  compact,  these  rivulets  uniting 
together  may  accumulate  until  they  form  a  considerable  stream.  Sooner 
or  later  this  encounters  a  crevice,  perhaps  at  first  very  small,  which  is 
enlarged  by  the  action  of  falling  water  till  a  vertical  shaft  is  formed  in 
the  ice,  through  which  the  stream  pours  in  a  waterfall  that  is  lost  to 
sight  in  the  depths  of  the  glacier.  Another  phenomenon  is  what  are 
commonly  called  glacier  tables,  or  ice  cones  capped  by  a  great  boulder 
which  has  protected  that  particular  bit  of  ice  from  being  melted  by  the 
sun's  rays. 

Among  other  apparent  objections  to  the  above  given  explanation  of 
the  origin  of  glaciers,  it  may  occur  to  the  reader  that,  as  considerable 
pressure  is  necessary  to  account  for  the  conversion  of  the  neve'  into  ice, 
the  upper  strata  which  have  not  undergone  this  pressure  ought  to  con- 
tinue in  the  state  of  neve,  and  that  the  upper  surface  of  the  glacier  should 
consist  of  neve',  and  not  of  ice.  This  objection  loses  sight  of  the  vast 
amount  of  ablation,  or  loss,  which  a  glacier  annually  undergoes  through 
the  melting  of  the  surface.  By  mounting  high  enough  on  each  glacier 
we  do  find  the  upper  surface  formed  of  neve,  but  as  it  descends  to  a  lower 
level  a  fresh  slice  of  the  surface  is  annually  cut  away  by  the  sun's  heat, 
and,  taking  a  rough  average,  it  is  not  too  much  to  assert  that  the  ice 
which  we  find  on  the  surface  in  the  middle  or  lower  part  of  a  glacier  was 
200  feet  deep  at  the  time  when  the  same  part  lay  one  mile  higher  up  the 
stream.  For  this  and  other  reasons  the  writer  (J.  B.)  is  persuaded  that 
the  depth  of  the  greater  glaciers  has  hitherto  been  much  underrated.  If 
we  possessed  continuous  series  of  observations  on  any  of  those  glaciers, 
showing  the  annual  rate  of  progress  in  successive  parts  of  the  stream, 
and  the  corresponding  loss  by  ablation,  we  should  be  able  to  infer  with 
great  probability  the  thickness  of  the  deposit  in  the  reservoir  whence 
it  flows. 

It  is  clear  that  the  further  a  glacier  flows  towards  the  lower  region,  the 
greater  will  be  the  annual  amount  of  ablation.  At  length  it  must  reach  a 
point  where  the  amount  of  annual  melting  of  the  ice  equals  the  amount 
borne  down  by  the  progress  of  the  glacier,  and  at  that  point  the  latter 
must  come  to  an  end.  The  inequalities  of  the  seasons  may  cause  a  slight 
oscillation  in  the  length,  especially  when  several  successive  seasons 
concur  to  produce  the  same  effect.  Abundant  winter  snow  and  cool 
summers  cause  the  glaciers  to  advance,  while  opposite  conditions  cause 
a  contrary  result.  The  more  considerable  changes  that  have  been 
occasionally  recorded  have  been  probably  caused  by  local  accidents. 

During  the  summer  months,  as  we  have  seen,  the  glacier  is  covered 
with  streamlets  produced  by  the  melting  of  the  surface  ;  the  sun  is 
constantly  eating  away  the  edges  and  sides  of  the  crevasses,  and  the  air 
and  the  earth  dissolve  a  portion  of  the  under  surface.  The  plenteous 
supply  of  water  from  all  these  sources  finally  makes  its  way  to  the  rocky 
bed,  where  it  passes  on  under  the  ice,  and  finally  issues  in  a  single  stream 
from  the  foot  of  the  glacier.  Here  the  ice  usually  forms  a  dome-shaped 
arch,  through  which  the  stream  flows  out  into  the  valley,  and  whose 
beautiful  azure  tints  attract  the  notice  of  travellers. 


THE  SNOW  REGION  OF  THE  ALPS.  C.xxvii 

The  appearance  of  the  surface  of  a  glacier  usually  differs  much  from 
the  previous  conception  formed  by  a  visitor.  Instead  of  the  clear  hues 
of  ice,  he  finds  it  soiled  by  earth  and  other  impurities,  carried  from  the 
slopes  of  the  adjoining  mountains  by  violent  winds.  The  surface  is 
generally  very  uneven,  for,  even  in  the  parts  free  from  crevasses,  the 
same  ice  over  which  the  traveller  walks  was  at  some  earlier  period  of  its 
history  rent  by  fissures,  and  has  probably  passed  through  the  wild 
confusion  of  an  icefall.  Lower  down,  when  pressure  came  into  play, 
the  broken  members  were  welded  together  again  so  as  to  form  a  continuous 
mass,  and  the  greater  irregularities  of  the  surface  were  removed  ;  but 
many  minor  hillocks  and  depressions,  unsuspected  at  a  distance,  preserve 
a  record  of  the  changes  that  have  been  undergone. 

Besides  the  minor  impurities  that  fleck  the  surface  of  the  ice-stream, 
there  are  other  more  important  foreign  bodies  borne  down  by  it.  The 
traveller  who  views  it  from  some  commanding  station  will  almost  always 
detect  a  fringe  of  blocks  of  stone,  of  various  sizes,  lying  along  both  sides 
near  the  bank,  and  may  usually  trace  one,  two,  or  more  lines  of  blocks 
descending  from  the  upper  end  of  the  glacier,  and  marking  a  continuous 
trail  along  the  course  of  the  stream.  The  general  name  for  these  trains 
of  blocks  is  moraines.  In  the  ceaseless  progress  of  decay  which  is 
eating  away  the  solid  materials  of  the  mountains,  blocks  of  stone, 
accompanied  by  finer  gravel,  constantly  fall  from  the  steep  slopes  above 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ice.  As  this  gradually  advances  it  receives  fresh 
contributions,  and  in  this  manner  are  accumulated  the  blocks  and  gravel 
along  the  sides  of  a  glacier  that  are  known  as  lateral  moraines.  As  the 
glacier  is  wasted  away  by  melting  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  a  portion 
of  the  lateral  moraine  is  stranded  on  the  bank  ;  a  further  portion  finds  its 
way  to  the  glacier  bed  through  the  crevasses  that  usually  abound  near 
the  sides  ;  and,  except  under  peculiar  circumstances,  a  small  portion 
only  is  carried  down  to  the  foot  of  the  glacier.  When  two  glaciers 
come  together,  each  being  provided  with  its  lateral  moraine,  the  conse- 
quence is  that  the  two  moraines  that  are  brought  together  become  joined 
and  confounded  into  one  in  the  centre  of  the  united  ice-stream.  In  this 
manner  is  formed  a  medial  moraine.  Being  far  from  the  edge  of  the 
glacier,  it  is  much  less  exposed  to  destruction  than  the  lateral  moraine. 
It  sometimes  disappears  from  sight  in  an  icefall,  but  as  the  crevasses, 
though  deep,  rarely  penetrate  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  ice,  the 
blocks  of  stone  fall  only  to  a  certain  depth,  and  in  due  time,  when  the 
upper  ice  is  removed  by  ablation,  they  come  again  into  view.  In  this 
way  huge  blocks  of  stone  are  borne  down  from  the  higher  crests  of  the 
Alps  to  the  lower  valleys,  with  the  edges  still  fresh,  and  without  ha\  in- 
suffered  mechanical  violence.  Most  of  the  greater  glaciers  are  formed 
by  the  union  of  a  number  of  smaller  separate  ice-streams.  To  the 
junction  of  each  of  these  affluents  belongs  a  separate  medial  moraine, 
which  may  often  be  traced  for  many  miles  from  the  point  of  junction  to 
the  foot  of  the  glacier,  disclosing  the  mineral  composition  of  parts  of  the 
range  difficult  or  impossible  of  access.  When  composed  of  large  blocks, 
a  medial  moraine  sometimes  forms  a  ridge  30  or  40  feet  in  height,  running 
along  the  middle  of  the  glacier.  The  first  impression  is,  that  this  ridge 
is  formed  of  rocks  piled  one  over  the  other ;   but   it   more   commonly 


CXXVlii  INTRODUCTION. 

happens  that  each  block  rests  upon  ice,  and  that  the  reason  why  they 
form  a  ridge  raised  above  the  general  level  is  that  the  blocks,  and  the 
gravel  which  accompanies  them,  protect  the  ice  from  ablation,  though 
separate  small  stones  conduct  heat,  and  sink  into  the  surface. 

The  mass  of  blocks  and  finer  matter  accumulated  in  front  of  a  glacier 
forms  the  terminal  moraine.  Its  extent  depends  very  much  more  on  the 
form  of  the  ground  in  the  place  where  the  glacier  comes  to  an  end,  than 
on  the  quantity  of  matter  transported  by  the  glacier.  In  the  course  of 
ages  this  would  almost  always  suffice  to  produce  a  considerable  mound, 
if  the  end  of  the  glacier  remained  nearly  at  the  same  point,  and  if  it  did 
not  often  happen  that  the  larger  portion  falls  into  the  bed  of  the  stream 
issuing  from  the  glacier,  and  is  there  water-worn,  reduced  in  size,  and 
gradually  carried  onward  through  the  valley. 

Not  less  important  than  the  transport  of  rocks  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  glacier  is  the  action  of  the  under  surface  on  the  mineral  materials 
with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  The  motion  of  a  glacier  is  mainly 
effected  by  means  of  the  internal  motion  of  the  ice,  by  which  one  part  is 
enabled  to  advance  more  rapidly  than  another,  but  in  part  the  motion 
(as  conjectured  by  Saussure)  is  accomplished  by  the  sliding  of  the  under 
surface  of  the  ice  upon  its  bed.  The  smaller  particles  of  stone  and  sand 
that  find  their  way  under  the  ice  are  set  into  the  surface,  and,  urged  by 
the  enormous  weight  of  the  glacier,  become  a  most  powerful  graving 
tool,  which  wears  away  the  surface  of  the  hardest  rocks.  Blocks  of  stone 
falling  from  the  moraines  to  the  bottom  of  the  glacier  through  crevasses 
are  rapidly  ground  down  in  this  gigantic  mill,  and  the  materials  are 
reduced  partly  to  small  scored  pebbles,  and  partly  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  finer  than  the  finest  mud.  Every  stream  issuing  from  a  glacier 
is  at  once  recognised  by  its  milky  colour,  derived  from  this  minutely 
pulverised  matter,  which  is  often  retained  in  suspension  for  a  distance  of 
60  miles  and  more  from  its  source.  It  is  this  glacier  silt  which  has  largely 
contributed  to  fill  up  the  heads  of  the  Alpine  lakes,  and  no  doubt  a  con- 
siderable quantity  is  carried  directly  to  the  sea  through  the  Po,  the  Adige, 
and  other  rivers  of  the  Eastern  Alps. 

By  the  process  above  described,  every  rock  over  which  a  glacier  passes 
is  worn  in  a  peculiar  manner.  Not  only  are  all  projecting  asperities 
removed,  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  uniform  convex  faces,  but  the 
surface  is  ground  and  polished  in  a  way  entirely  different  from  the  action 
of  water  or  other  known  agents.  The  presence  of  fine  striae  extending 
for  a  considerable  distance,  occasionally  mingled  with  larger  grooves,  is 
one  of  the  characteristic  indications  of  glacial  action.  These  have  been 
studied  with  much  attention  of  late  years,  since  their  importance  as  evi- 
dence of  the  former  extension  of  the  glaciers  has  been  recognised  by 
geologists.  After  much  discussion,  no  difference  remains  among  com- 
petent men  of  science  as  to  the  fact  that  the  existing  glaciers  occupied  a 
very  much  wider  area  than  they  now  do,  at  a  period  geologically  very 
recent.  The  exact  limits  of  that  area  may  not  be  settled,  and  there  is 
room  for  discussion  as  to  some  of  the  results  attributed  to  their  action  ; 
but  the  fact  that  they  played  an  important  part  as  geological  agents,  not 
only  in  the  Alps,  but  in  other  mountain  countries  where  they  do  not  now 
exist,  is  generally  admitted. 


THE  SNOW   REGION  OF  THE  ALPS.  Cxxix 

The  geological  agency  of  glaciers  is  discussed  in  Art.  XI.  Many 
other  interesting  branches  of  enquiry  connected  with  the  glaciers  remain 
untouched  in  the  foregoing  sketch.  They  are  not  only  amongst  the 
grandest  and  most  impressive  objects  in  nature,  but  at  the  same  time 
amongst  the  most  fertile  in  instruction  to  the  student  of  her  laws,  while 
their  influence  on  the  climate  and  conditions  of  large  portions  of  the 
earth  is  of  vast  importance  to  mankind  in  general. 

To  form  an  adequate  idea  of  the  part  played  by  glaciers  in  the  general 
economy  of  nature,  let  the  reader  consider  for  a  moment  the  consequences 
that  would  arise  in  our  continent  if  they  were  to  disappear.  All  the 
greatest  rivers  would  at  once  be  reduced  to  insignificant  streams,  rising 
in  rainy  weather,  and  dwindling  away  in  time  of  drought.  The  Danube 
nominally  rises  in  Swabia,  but  its  true  source,  which  is  the  Inn,  along 
with  the  Salza,  the  Drave,  and  its  other  chief  tributaries,  derives  from  the 
glaciers  the  streams  that  maintain  the  level  of  the  river.  The  Rhine,  the 
Rhone,  the  Po,  and  the  Adige  are  fed  almost  exclusively  by  the  Alpine 
glaciers,  and  it  is  these  that  maintain  the  abundant  supplies  of  pure 
water  that  enable  the  Italian  lakes  to  diffuse  fertility  throughout  the  valley 
of  the  Po. 

The  intimate  structure  of  glacier  ice  has  been  much  studied  and  dis- 
cussed, and  has  revealed  facts  of  new  and  unexpected  interest.  Those 
who  feel  an  interest  in  the  physics  of  the  subject  will  not  fail  to  read 
Professor  Tyndall's  important  work,  'The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps'  (i860, 
reprinted  in  1896),  or  Professor  Heim's  work  referred  to  at  the  opening 
of  this  Article. 

The  phenomena  of  glaciers  may  be  studied  in  most  parts  of  the  Alpine 
chain,  where  the  average  height  of  the  peaks  approaches  11,000  English 
feet.  Reckoning  from  west  to  east,  the  chief  glacier  districts  are  the 
Dauphine  Alps,  the  main  range  of  the  Graian  Alps  between  the  Roche 
Melon  and  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  the  Vanoise  group,  the  Grand  Paradis 
group,  the  chain  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  entire  range  of  the  Pennine  Alps 
from  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass  to  the  Simplon,  the  Bernese  Alps  from 
the  Diablerets  to  the  Grimsel,  the  Sustenhorn  group  from  the  Titlis  range 
to  the  Furka,  the  range  of  the  Todi,  the  Adula  group,  the  Bernina  group, 
the  Ortler  group,  the  Adamello  range  between  the  Val  Camonica  and  the 
Val  Rendena,  the  Oetzthal  glaciers  in  the  Tyrol,  and  lastly  the  snowy 
range  extending  from  the  Brenner  Pass  to  the  Heiligenbluter  Tauern, 
and  culminating  in  the  Gross  Glockner.  There  are  a  few  small  glaciers 
in  the  Maritime  Alps  (mainly  in  the  Cima  dei  Gelas  range),  and  one  on 
Monte  Viso  (the  true  source  of  the  Po),  with  some  others  in  the 
Chambeyron  group  and  in  the  Ambin  group  between  the  Mont  Cenis 
Pass  and  Tunnel.  In  the  Dolomites  glaciers  are  few  and  far  between. 
The  Hohsand  and  Gries  glaciers  in  the  Lepontines  are  surprisingly 
extensive  as  compared  with  others  in  that  district.  Perhaps  two  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  small  glaciers  on  minor  peaks  are  the  Blaugletscherli, 
at  the  N.  foot  of  the  Schwarzhorn,  near  Grindelwald  (which  has  no  neV£), 
and  the  Glarnisch  and  Bachi  glaciers  (commonly  called  neve's,  though  the 
former  at  least  has  a  distinct  icefall),  on  the  Glarnisch,  while  on  the  still 
lower  Santis  (8,216  ft.)  there  are  at  least  two  considerable  masses  of 
permanent   ndve'.      The    largest   single  glacier   is   the   Great   Aletsch, 

// 


Cxxx  INTRODUCTION. 

draining  the  S.  side  of  the  Bernese  Oberland  group  ;  it  descends  in  one 
unbroken  stream  with  a  length  of  15  miles  and  an  average  breadth  of 
fully  one  mile,  while  its  total  area  (excluding  its  feeders,  which  add  15J 
square  miles  more)  is  no  less  than  50  square  miles.  Next  in  order  of 
length  and  area  (in  the  Alps,  of  course)  come  the  Unteraar,  the  Viescher, 
and  the  Gorner  glaciers,  followed  by  the  Mer  de  Glace  and  the  Lower 
Grindelwald  glacier  ;  in  the  Eastern  Alps  the  Gepatsch  (area  8£  square 
miles,  length  7  miles),  Pasterze,  and  Gurgler  glaciers  are  the  largest 
(Richter  reverses  the  order  of  the  first  and  second  named).  The  Lower 
Grindelwald  glacier  descended  to  the  lowest  level,  having  sunk  to  3,225  ft. 
in  1 818,  though  now,  of  course,  its  snout  is  far  higher  up.  Professor 
Heim  reckons  that  the  total  glacier  surface  (ice  and  neve)  in  the  Alps  is 
between  1,158  and  1,544  square  miles  ;  of  this  about  half  is  in  Switzerland, 
wherein  the  Vallais  has  nearly  three  times  as  much  as  its  nearest  rival, 
the  Grisons,  which  is  followed  pretty  closely  by  Bern.  The  same  inves- 
tigator tells  us  that  there  are  about  1,155  glaciers  in  the  Alps  (though 
no  doubt  this  is  only  a  rough  calculation).  These  are  distributed  as 
follows  (see  his  work,  p.  49)  : — 


- 

Large  Glaciers 

Small  Glaciers 

Total 

1.  Switzerland     . 

2.  Austria  . 

3.  France   . 

4.  Italy 

138 
71 
25 
15 

333 
39i 
119 

63 

471 
462 
144 

7* 

249 

906 

i,i55 

A  few  years  ago  a  '  Commission  Internationale  des  Glaciers '  was 
formed  to  collect  authentic  information  as  to  various  questions  relating  to 
glaciers  and  their  fluctuations  in  the  whole  world.  Limiting  ourselves  to 
the  Alps  (which  form  the  scope  of  this  work)  special  mention  should  be 
made  of  the  very  elaborate  and  valuable  annual  reports  as  to  changes  in 
Alpine  (mainly  Swiss)  glaciers  published  by  Professor  Forel  (the  first  two 
appeared  in  the  'Echo  des  Alpes'  of  Geneva  for  1881  and  1882,  but  since 
then  in  the  '  Jahrbuch '  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club).  The  results  of  the  long- 
continued  observations  on  the  Rhone  Glacier  have  not  yet  been  published. 
But  there  exist  several  excellent  monographs  (generally  with  sketch 
maps)  on  various  glaciers,  among  which  we  may  name  the  following  : — 

« Miage,'  by  Professor  Baretti  ('  Memorie  della  Reale  Accademia  delle 
Scienze  di  Torino,'  second  series,  vol.  xxxii.  1880)  ;  'Brenva,'  by  Signor 
Marengo  (' Bollettino '  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  for  1881,  and  see  the 
*  Alpine  Guide,5  vol.  i.  p.  373);  *  Glaciers  of  the  Grand  Paradis  Group,'  by 
Signor  Druetti  (same  periodical  for  1897) ;  '  Lower  Grindelwald,'  by  Pro- 
fessor Baltzer  ('Denkschriften  der  schweiz.  naturforschend.  Gesellschaft,' 
vol.  xxxiii.  part  2,  1898) ;  '  Pasterze,'  by  Herr  Seeland  ('  Zeitschrift '  of  the 
German  and  Austrian  Alpine  Club  from  1880  to  1893)  ;  and  the  '  Vernagt- 
ferner,'  by  Dr.  Finsterwalder  ('  Wissenschaftliche  Erganzungshefte,'  no.  1 
of  the  'Zeitschrift'  of  the  German  and  Austrian  Alpine  Club,  1897). 


THE   SNOW   REGION   OF   THE  ALPS.  Cxxxi 

For  the  Eastern  Alps  we  have  Professor  Richter's  classical  writings— 
<Die  Gletscher  der  Ostalpen'  (1888)  and  'Urkunden  iiber  die  Ausbriiche 
d.  Vernagt-  und  Gurglergletschers  im  17.  und  18.  Jahrhundert '  (Stuttgart, 
1892),  as  well  as  his  'Geschichte  der  Schwankungen  der  Alpengletscher ' 
(a  general  article  in  vol.  xxii.  of  the  '  Zeitschrift '  of  the  German  and 
Austrian  Alpine  Club,  1891).  In  1898  Dr.  Magnus  Fritzsch  issued  at 
Vienna  a  very  handy  and  detailed  list  of  all  the  cairns,  posts,  splashes  of 
red  paint,  &c,  placed  (up  to  1896)  on  various  Tyrolese  glaciers,  with  notes 
of  the  advance  or  retreat  of  each. 

A  word  must  be  said  as  to  the  lakes  which  are  formed  not  so  much  in  a 
glacier  as  between  it  and  the  stones  on  one  or  other  of  its  sides.  They 
not  unfrequently  drain  through  a  hole  in  the  ice  and  cause  great  damage 
to  the  valley  below.  The  best  known  case  is  the  Marjelen  lake,  near  the 
Great  Aletsch  Glacier,  and  not  far  from  the  Eggishorn  Hotel  (its 
history  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Gosset  in  vol.  xxiii.  (1887-8)  of  the 
' Jahrbuch'  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club).  Another  case  is  that  of  the  Rutor 
lake,  in  the  Rutor  group,  between  Aosta  and  the  Little  St.  Bernard  Pass 
(for  its  history  see  the  admirable  historical  article  by  Professor  Baretti  in 
the  '  Bollettino'  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  for  1880  ;  see  also  the  *  Alpine 
Guide,'  vol.  i.  p.  289).  A  third  is  that  formed  at  the  foot  of  the  Crete  Scche 
glacier,  at  the  head  of  the  Val  de  Bagnes,  in  1894  (see  M.  Pioche's  article 
in  vol.  xxi.  of  the  'Annuaire '  of  the  French  Alpine  Club,  and  the  '  Alpine 
Guide,'  vol.  i.  p.  442)  and  1898.  A  somewhat  analogous  phenomenon  is 
when,  owing  to  special  circumstances,  water  accumulates  (a  \  poche 
d'eau ')  within  a  glacier,  suddenly  breaking  loose  and  devastating  the 
valley  beneath.  The  chief  case  is  that  of  the  bursting  of  such  an  accumula- 
tion in  the  Tete  Rousse  glacier,  on  the  Aiguille  du  Goiiter,  which  in 
1892  practically  destroyed  St.  Gervais  les  Bains  (see  M.  Durier's  article 
in  vol.  xix.  of  the  '  Annuaire '  of  the  French  Alpine  Club,  and  the  !  Alpine 
Guide,'  vol.  i.  p.  368).  In  the  Val  de  Bagnes  the  Gietroz  glacier  has  at 
least  twice  in  historical  times  (1595  and  18 18)  so  blocked  the  narrow 
valley  that  when  the  barrier  was  broken  through  the  valley  below  suffered 
tremendous  damage  ;  but  this  danger  is  now  averted  by  an  ingenious 
device,  described  in  vol.  i.  p.  442  of  the  '  Alpine  Guide.' 

Avalanches. — It  is  impossible  to  quit  the  snow  region  of  the  Alps 
without  a  brief  reference  to  avalanches  (Germ.  Lauineri).*  These  are  of 
different  kinds,  and  very  different  in  their  effects,  according  as  they 
consist  of  snow,  neVe\  or  ice.  The  snow,  which  falls  in  prodigious 
quantities  on  the  slopes  of  Alpine  valleys  in  winter,  is  little  compact,  and 
when  it  accumulates  to  such  a  point  as  to  begin  to  move,  the  disturbance 
sometimes  extends  to  a  great  distance,  and  a  mass  of  snow  sufficient  to 
overwhelm  a  village  falls  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes.  The  chief 
danger  from  these  avalanches,  which  are  very  common  in  some  valleys, 

*  The  French  name  comes  from  'ad  vallem,'  as  they  slide  valleywards,  while  the  Germru 
is  said  to  be  a  form  of  the  mediaeval  '  labina,'  (which  still  survives  in  RomoiiM  h  as'Iavma'), 
meaning  that  which  slides.  See  an  interesting  note  by  Mr.  Tuckett  on  these  two  words  in  \ ■  >!.  % . 
of  the  Alpine  Journal,  pp.  346-9 ;  the  word  '  lowinas '  appears  as  early  as  1302,  in  two  Latti 
ments  relating  to  Morschach,  above  the  Lake  of  Lucerne  {ibid,  xviii.  128).  I  !)<•  standard  work  on 
avalanches  in  Switzerland  is  Herr  Coaz's  Die  Lauinen  der  Schweizeralfen  (Bern.  1881),  while 
another  book  by  Herr  Elias  Landolt,  Die  Bcicht,  Schneelawincn  und  Stftnscklllfe  (Zurich,  1887), 

fives  a  most  interesting  account  of  the  artificial  means  of  defence  de\  i 
cods,  and  the  like. 

h  2 


CXXXli  INTRODUCTION. 

and  are  called  Staublauinen  (dust  avalanches),  arises  from  the  roofs 
giving  way  under  the  weight  of  the  snow.  So  much  air  is  contained  in 
the  snow  that  it  is  possible  to  breathe  freely,  and  many  persons  have  been 
delivered,  or  have  been  able  to  work  their  own  way  out,  after  being  buried 
for  many  days  and  even  weeks. 

Far  more  formidable  than  the  Staublauinen  are  those  called  in  German 
Switzerland  Grundlauinen.  These  usually  occur  during  the  spring, 
after  the  winter  snow  has  become  partially  consolidated,  and  approaches 
the  consistency  of  neve.  When  an  unusual  quantity  has  fallen  in  the 
preceding  winter,  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  spring  sometimes  causes  the 
descent  of  very  considerable  masses  in  a  semi-compact  condition.  The 
momentum  gained  in  descending  several  hundreds  or  thousands  of  feet 
makes  this  description  of  avalanche  very  destructive  in  its  effects.  A 
broad  passage  is  cleared  through  a  pine  forest  as  though  the  trees  had 
been  but  stubble,  and  when  it  reaches  inhabited  places,  which  does  not 
often  occur,  it  either  crushes  the  houses  on  which  it  falls,  or  buries  them 
so  completely  as  to  make  the  work  of  extrication  very  difficult.  In  the 
higher  valleys  of  the  Alps  these  avalanches  are  very  common  in  the  spring, 
falling  before  the  herdsmen  go  to  the  chalets  on  the  '  Alps.'  The  remains 
are  often  to  be  seen  throughout  the  summer,  and  not  unfrequently  serve 
to  bridge  over  a  torrent  which  works  for  itself  a  passage  beneath  the  snow. 

Comparatively  small  glaciers,  lying  on  a  steep  rocky  slope,  have  in  a 
few  rare  instances  been  known  to  detach  themselves  partially  from  their 
beds,  and  to  fall  into  some  lower  valley.  Should  this  occur  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  inhabited  places,  the  result  is  a  catastrophe  as  formid- 
able as  that  caused  by  the  fall  of  portions  of  a  mountain.  The  village  of 
Randa  was  in  1 819  all  but  completely  destroyed  by  the  blast  of  air 
occasioned  by  the  fall  of  a  portion  of  the  Bies  glacier  ;  but  the  most 
recent  and  most  terrible  occurrence  of  this  kind  was  the  fall  of  an  enormous 
portion  of  the  Altels  glacier  on  to  the  Gemmi  path  in  1895,  when  (as  in 
1782)  several  men  and  many  cows  perished  (see  the  excellent  account 
of  this  disaster  published  by  Professor  Heim  at  Zurich  in  1895  under  the 
title  of  '  Die  Gletscherlawine  an  der  Altels5  as  no.  98  of  the  '  Neujahrs- 
blatt  d.  Ziircher.  Naturforsch.  Gesellschaft ').  Smaller  ice  avalanches  are 
of  daily  occurrence  in  the  High  Alps,  in  situations  where  a  glacier  reaches 
the  edge  of  a  steep  rocky  slope.  In  warm  weather,  when  the  movement 
of  such  a  glacier  is  accelerated,  blocks  of  ice  frequently  fall  over  the  edge 
of  the  precipice,  and  in  falling  are  broken  into  smaller  fragments,  each 
of  which  is,  however,  capable  of  doing  severe  injury.  The  guides,  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  places  exposed  to  the  descent  of  such  masses  of  ice, 
are  very  careful  to  avoid  them,  or  else  to  pass  very  early  in  the  day  before 
the  sun  has  set  the  ice  in  motion.  Of  this  class  are  the  avalanches  that 
are  seen  and  listened  to  with  so  much  interest  by  travellers  in  the  Bernese 
Oberland.  They  are  apt  to  feel  surprise  that  what  appears  to  be  no  more 
than  the  fall  of  a  little  snow  down  the  rocky  face  of  the  Jungfrau,  or  the 
Wetterhorn,  should  cause  a  roar  that  is  impressive  even  at  the  distance 
of  a  couple  of  miles.  They  learn,  on  closer  acquaintance,  that  what  has 
appeared  to  be  mere  dust  is  caused  by  the  fall  of  blocks  of  ice  of  very  many 
tons  weight,  which  are  shattered  into  small  fragments,  each  of  them  as 
formidable  as  a  cannon  ball. 


THE  SNOW  REGION   OF   THE   ALPS.  Cxxxiii 

A  description  of  avalanche,  which  is  rarely  encountered  except  by 
mountaineers  in  the  High  Alps,  arises  where  fresh  snow  rests  upon  steep 
slopes  of  ice  or  frozen  neve.  A  trifling  cause  may  set  the  loose  snow  in 
motion,  and  when  this  begins  to  slide  it  rarely  ceases  until  the  whole 
superficial  stratum  has  reached  the  bottom  of  the  slope.  The  danger  is 
not  so  much  that  of  being  buried  in  the  snow,  as  of  being  carried  over 
precipices  or  into  the  bergschrund  which  often  lies  gaping  at  the  foot 
of  such  a  slope. 


Art.   XV. — Photography  in  the  High  Alps/ 

This  Article  is  devoted  especially  to  the  requirements  of  the  Alpine 
aspirant  who  may  desire  to  combine  photography  with  his  favourite 
pastime  of  climbing.  Those  who  confine  their  attention  to  the  subalpine 
districts  hardly  need  further  information  than  that  to  be  found  in  the 
best  class  of  the  numerous  existing  text-books  on  the  subject.  Photo- 
graphy in  the  High  Alps,  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  difficult 
branches  of  the  art,  cannot  claim  to  have  attained  any  great  degree  of 
popularity  until  the  last  twenty  years  ;  for  although  the  camera  had, 
previous  to  that  period,  been  carried  up  sundry  peaks  and  passes  by 
some  enterprising  climbers,  it  must  be  confessed  that  their  work  was, 
with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  of  a  somewhat  inferior  description.  The 
rapid  improvement  made  in  the  manufacture  of  dry  plates  between  1870 
and  1880  was,  without  doubt,  responsible  for  the  real  commencement  of 
mountain  photography,  which  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1879  witn  tne 
extraordinarily  beautiful  series  of  views  in  the  High  Alps  taken  by  the  late 
Mr.  W.  F.  Donkin,  whose  brilliant  success  naturally  roused  a  spirit  of 
emulation  in  others,  and  at  the  present  time  the  camera  is  to  be  fre- 
quently found  amongst  the  contents  of  the  rucksack. 

The  climber  should  give  a  considerable  amount  of  thought  and  con- 
sideration to  the  apparatus  he  intends  to  use,  with  especial  reference  to 
its  size,  weight,  portability,  strength,  &c.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly 
impressed  on  him  that  the  frivolous  form  of  photography,  in  which  a 
mere  button  is  pressed  and  the  rest  done  by  some  other  person  who  has 
probably  never  set  eyes  on  a  Swiss  mountain,  is  altogether  out  of  place 
amongst  the  snow  fields  and  ice-clad  peaks  of  the  High  Alps,  where,  if, 
in  spite  of  the  difficulties  of  transport,  it  be  worth  while  to  take  a  camera 
at  all,  it  is  surely  worth  while  to  take  the  proper  amount  of  care  in  order 
to  secure  successful  results,  for  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  a 
mountain  rarely  presents  the  same  picture  to  the  eye  on  separate  visits. 
Whether  the  apparatus  should  take  the  form  of  a  hand  camera  or  a 
stand  camera  must,  of  course,  depend  largely  on  personal  preference. 
The  advantage  would  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  hand 
camera.  As  regards  weight,  this  certainly  is  the  case,  but  the  question 
of  size  and  portability  requires  to  be  judged  from  a  somewhat  different 
point  of  view. 

Of  the  hand  cameras  of  the  usual  box  form  the  quarter-plate  and 
5  in.   x  4  in.  sizes  are  the  largest  that  can  be  conveniently  carried  up  any 

*  This  article  is  new  and  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Sydney  Spencer. 


CXXX1V  INTRODUCTION. 

mountain  of  average  difficulty  ;  whereas,  under  similar  circumstances,  a 
half-plate  stand  camera  may  be  taken  with  perfect  ease,  the  various  parts 
constituting  the  latter  being  packed  in  the  rucksack  with  greater  comfort 
than  the  hand  camera,  whose  cumbersome  shape  renders  it  a  most  awk- 
ward piece  of  luggage. 

Moreover,  although  excellent  enlargements  and  lantern  slides  can  be 
obtained  from  quarter-plate  negatives,  the  direct  prints  made  from  them 
produce  an  impression  distinctly  inferior  to  that  given  by  half-plate 
prints  of  similar  subjects. 

Nevertheless  many  will,  no  doubt,  give  the  preference  to  the  hand 
camera,  owing  to  the  small  amount  of  preparation  required  before  using 
it.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  a  multiplicity  of  complicated 
movements  are  a  serious  drawback  to  a  hand  camera  intended  for 
use  in  the  mountains.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  specify  the  numerous 
hand  cameras  now  before  the  public,  but  amongst  those  which  up  to  the 
present  time  (1899)  have  been  well  tried,  and  may  be  recommended  for 
the  High  Alps,  are  the  Frena  (Beck),  the  Ross  Twin  Lens,  the  Primus 
(Butcher),  the  Newman  and  Guardia,  the  Key  (Platinotype  Co.),  and  the 
Xit  (Shew),  all  of  which  are  well  constructed  machines,  and  in  the  box 
form,  excepting  the  last-named,  which  folds. 

The  chief  points  of  each  may  be  briefly  set  forth  as  follows  : — 

The  Frena  is  a  light  camera  possessing  a  magazine  capable  of  carrying 
as  many  as  forty  films,  the  changing  mechanism  of  which  is,  however, 
liable  to  upset  by  the  inevitable  bumping  incidental  to  rock-climbing. 

The  Ross  Twin  Lens  camera  is  also  a  fairly  light  machine,  whose  chief 
advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  photographer  is  able  to  see  the  exact 
picture  he  is  taking. 

The  same  result  is  obtained  by  an  ingenious  reflecting  arrangement  in 
the  Primus  No.  7  A  hand  camera,  which  is,  in  addition,  fitted  with  double 
extension  bellows,  enabling  lenses  of  varying  foci  to  be  used,  an  advan- 
tage which  will  be  readily  appreciated  by  Alpine  photographers. 

The  Newman  and  Guardia  Special  Pattern  B  camera  is  a  very 
beautifully  constructed  machine  in  all  its  parts,  with  which  lenses  of 
varying  foci  can  also  be  used  by  means  of  its  triple  extension  bellows, 
but  it  is,  perhaps,  open  to  the  objection  of  being  rather  complicated  and, 
in  common  with  the  last  named  camera,  is  somewhat  heavy. 

The  ingenious  dark  slides  and  simplicity  of  manipulation  are  the  most 
noticeable  points  of  the  Key  camera,  which  has  certainly  proved  as 
effective  in  practice  as  any  of  those  named  here. 

The  Xit  camera  stands  by  itself  as  a  hand  camera,  and  is,  perhaps, 
the  one  which  will  recommend  itself  most  to  the  climber,  owing  to  its 
extraordinary  lightness  and  portability.  It  can,  indeed,  be  carried  quite 
easily  in  the  pocket,  although  this  mode  of  carrying  it  is  certainly  not 
recommended.  If  fitted  with  the  Xit  extension  back  it  may  be  used  as 
an  ordinary  stand  camera  with  all  the  advantages  conferred  by  the  use 
of  lenses  of  varying  foci. 

All  the  cameras  above  mentioned  possess  in  common  the  advantage  of  a 
rising  front,  which  is  indispensable  for  the  mountains.  The  lenses  used 
ought,  of  course,  to  be  of  a  first-rate  kind,  and  should  have  a  focal 
length  of  about  5^  inches. 


PHOTOGRAPHY   IN   THE   HIGH  ALPS.  cxxxv 

As  time  exposures  are  often  preferable,  and  even  necessary  for  Alpine 
photography,  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  rule  of  taking  a  tripod  stand  for 
use  with  the  hand  camera  ;  for  the  trembling  of  the  hands  and  the 
increased  pulsation  of  the  heart,  caused  by  the  exertions  of  climbing, 
render  it  impossible  to  hold  the  camera  motionless  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  in  the  hands  alone,  while  it  is  seldom  easy  to  find  a  convenient 
object  on  which  to  place  the  camera. 

A  telescopic  aluminium  tripod  of  great  lightness,  with  triangular  legs 
made  adjustable  for  uneven  ground,  has  been  recently  brought  out  (Shew), 
and  would  probably  meet  the  requirements  of  the  case.  Should  the 
climber,  however,  desire  to  avoid  the  trouble  of  carrying  a  tripod,  he  can 
make  use  of  a  metal  clip  and  screw  by  means  of  which  the  camera  can 
be  fastened  to  the  head  of  the  ice  axe,  which  thus  serves  as  the  support 
to  keep  the  camera  steady. 

A  stand  camera  is  undoubtedly  more  troublesome  to  manipulate  than 
a  hand  camera,  but,  owing  probably  to  the  fact  that  it  is  used  with 
greater  care,  it  is  on  the  whole  more  certain,  and  consequently  more 
satisfactory  in  its  results.  If  the  apparatus  be  carried  by  a  guide  (who 
seldom  regards  it  with  a  friendly  eye)  the  climber  should  content  himself 
with  a  half-plate  camera,  which  is  the  largest  size  he  can  reasonably 
expect  the  guide  to  carry  in  addition  to  the  other  impedimenta  necessary 
for  a  mountain  expedition.  If,  however,  the  climber  should  be  willing  to 
bear  the  burden  on  his  own  shoulders,  and  have|nothing  else  to  carry,  he 
could,  if  he  wished,  take  the  7^  in.  x  5  in.  size,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  slight  enlargement  in  the  size  of  the  picture  obtained  fully  compensates 
for  the  increased  weight  and  dimensions  of  the  whole  apparatus. 

The  particular  points  to  which  attention  should  be  given  in  selecting  a 
stand  camera  may  be  enumerated  as  follows  : — 

The  Body  of  the  Camera. — It  is  important  that  this  be  of  the  best 
possible  workmanship,  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  wood  and  metal 
bound  (aluminium  being  used  as  far  as  possible),  in  order  that  it  may 
withstand  the  variations  and  vagaries  of  mountain  weather  and  the 
severe  shocks  which  it  is  certain  to  encounter  during  its  Alpine  career. 
It  will,  of  course,  possess  the  usual  advantages  of  a  swing  back  and  a 
rising  front,  the  latter  being  quite  indispensable.  These  movements 
should  be  easily  adjustable,  as  nothing  is  more  trying  to  the  temper  on  a 
cold  day  than  to  have  stiff  movements  to  handle  with  half-frozen  fingers  ; 
they  should  also  not  be  of  such  a  complicated  nature  as  to  be  easily  put 
out  of  order.  An  undetachable  revolving  adaptor,  to  hold  the  dark  slide 
vertically  or  horizontally  at  will,  is  an  improvement  on  the  usual  remov- 
able adaptor,  and  an  aluminium  turntable  is  of  untold  convenience.  All 
thumbscrews  should  be  made  so  that  they  cannot  be  removed.  A  small 
spirit  level  or  a  plumb  indicator  fixed  on  the  camera  will  be  found  useful, 
and  it  is  also  advisable  to  take  one  or  two  extra  focussing  screens  to 
replace  possible  breakages. 

Lens. — The  most  serviceable  for  the  mountaineer  are  the  sets  of  inter- 
changeable lenses  now  sold  by  various  makers,  which  practically  enable 
the  photographer  to  include  in  his  picture  just  as  much  as  he  wishes. 
For  instance,  the  Set  C  of  Zeiss  convertible  lenses,  sold  by  Ross  and 
Co.,  includes  a  9-inch,  an  1  ij-inch,  and  a   14-inch  single  lens,  the  various 


CXXXV1  INTRODUCTION. 

combinations  of  which  give  5  f -inch,  6^-inch,  and  7-inch  focus,  thus 
giving  a  range  of  foci  varying  from  5§-inch  to  14-inch.  The  lens  mount 
is  provided  with  an  iris  diaphragm  and  a  movable  ring  marked  with 
scales  of  apertures  for  the  various  focal  lengths. 

The  yellow  screen  is  a  comparatively  recent  introduction  into  Alpine 
photography,  of  which  the  chief  use  is  to  give  a  correct  rendering  of 
colour  values,  and  to  diminish  the  sensitiveness  of  the  plates  to  the 
violet  and  blue  rays.  It  is  intended  more  especially  to  be  used  with 
isochromatic  plates,  as  its  utility  with  ordinary  plates  is  not  very  apparent. 
For  mountain  photography  its  chief  advantages  lie  in  the  softening  of 
shadows  and  the  rendering  of  clouds  and  distant  ranges,  although,  as  far 
as  the  latter  is  concerned,  it  cannot  be  claimed  that  the  same  result  may 
not  be  successfully  obtained  without  the  screen.  Its  use  is  distinctly 
beneficial  in  a  hazy  atmosphere.  A  primrose  yellow  screen  is  the  most 
useful,  of  such  a  shade  that  about  three  times  the  usual  exposure  is 
necessary. 

Shutter. — The  climber  may  choose  between  two  classes  of  shutter, 
the  blind  shutter  and  that  used  between  the  lenses.  Of  the  former  the 
Thornton -Pickard  still  holds  its  own  for  efficiency.  Its  best  place  is, 
perhaps,  at  the  back  of  the  lens,  and  fastened  to  the  lens  carrier,  where  it 
runs  less  risk  of  being  damaged  or  of  shaking  the  camera  when  set  in 
motion.  Of  the  between-lens  shutters  the  Bausch-Lomb  is  probably  the 
most  popular  at  the  present  moment.  The  Goerz  Sector  Shutter  may, 
however,  prove  the  best  for  the  climber,  as  all  its  working  parts  are 
covered  in,  being  thus  protected  from  injury.  Both  these  shutters  can  be 
worked  by  a  finger  trigger  instead  of  the  pneumatic  ball  and  tube. 

A  shutter  is,  of  course,  an  absolute  necessity  for  rapid  plates,  but  where 
slow  plates  are  invariably  used  it  is  not  an  altogether  indispensable  item 
in  the  outfit,  as  in  this  case  the  cap  serves  quite  as  well,  and  in  any  event 
should  never  be  left  behind. 

Dark  Slides  or  Changing  Box. — For  plates  a  changing  box  is  recom- 
mended instead  of  the  usual  separate  dark  slides.  The  Burns-Shaw  is 
probably  the  best  for  Alpine  work,  although  it  necessitates  the  use  of 
a  dark  slide.  It  is  a  very  solid  light-tight  wooden  box  to  hold  twelve 
plates,  with  two  brass  slides  running  in  deep  grooves  at  one  end,  through 
which  the  plates  pass  out  of  and  into  the  changing  box  into  and  from  the 
dark  slide.  The  plates  are  protected  from  scratches  by  metal  flanges,  which 
bind  them  together  in  pairs.  Of  other  changing  boxes  now  in  use  the 
Adams,  and  the  Newman  &  Guardia,  neither  of  which  requires  the  use 
of  a  separate  dark  slide,  have  both  been  well  tried.  In  these  the  plates 
are  changed  by  lifting  them  with  the  fingers  from  the  back  to  the  front  of 
the  box  at  the  end  enclosed  by  a  soft  leather  bag.  None  of  these  appear 
to  be  wholly  satisfactory  for  films,  which  are  perhaps  best  used  in  dark 
slides  specially  made  for  them,  of  which  the  best  pattern  is,  perhaps, 
that  made  by  Shew.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  emphasise  the  import- 
ance of  having  the  sliding  shutters  of  the  plate  holders,  if  these  be 
used,  fitted  with  the  utmost  accuracy,  as  the  penetrative  power  of  light  on 
a  high  snow-field  is  very  remarkable.  For  this  reason  it  is  also  necessary 
to  have  the  wood-work  of  these  thin  cameras  and  slides  well  painted  with 
dead  black  outside  as  well  as  inside. 


PHOTOGRAPHY   IN   THE   HIGH   ALPS.  CXXXV11 

Tripod. — The  ordinary  camera  legs,  even  if  made  fourfold,  are,  when 
closed,  inconveniently  long  for  mountain  work,  and  in  the  descent  of 
difficult  and  steep  rocks  may  become  a  really  serious  source  of  danger. 
The  prudent  climber  will,  therefore,  do  well  to  be  satisfied  with  a  short 
set,  measuring  when  folded  twelve  inches  at  the  most,  which  can  be 
easily  carried  in  the  side  pocket  of  the  rucksack.  It  is  essential  that  the 
legs  should  be  made  sufficiently  stout  to  possess  the  requisite  rigidity  in  a 
high  wind.  They  should  also  be  provided  with  very  sharp  points, 
without  which  it  is  sometimes  almost  impossible  to  place  the  camera  on 
the  limited  space  of  a  rocky  summit.  On  deep  snow  three  small  discs 
of  cork  or  wood  are  most  useful  for  preventing  the  legs  from  sinking. 

The  focussing  cloth — the  only  remaining  item  of  importance — should 
have  along  one  end  a  running  tape  sewn  down  in  the  middle,  by  which 
means  it  can  be  tied  securely  to  the  camera. 

A  full  discussion  of  the  comparative  merits  of  glass  plates  and  Jihns 
would  require  more  space  than  these  pages  can  afford,  but  it  may  be 
boldly  asserted  that,  whenever  it  is  possible  to  take  them,  glass  plates  are, 
in  spite  of  their  greater  weight,  much  to  be  preferred.  The  wisest  course, 
however,  is  to  take  a  supply  of  both,  as  the  lightness  of  films  is  an 
immense  advantage  when  it  is  important  to  keep  down  the  weight  of  the 
rucksack.  Moderately  slow  plates  are  perhaps  the  best  for  Alpine 
photography — at  any  rate  for  a  novice.  After  two  or  three  years' 
experience  the  photographer  will  be  able  to  please  himself  in  the  matter. 
With  regard  to  the  packing  of  the  plates  after  exposure — a  question  of 
some  importance  to  the  climber,  who  is  obliged  so  often  to  send  his 
luggage  unaccompanied  from  place  to  place — an  excellent  plan  is  to  put 
them  back,  packed  in  pairs,  face  to  face,  in  the  original  wrappings,  into  the 
same  boxes  from  which  they  were  first  taken,  and  to  place  the  latter  in  the 
middle  of  the  suit-case  or  trunk,  tightly  packed  all  round  with  clothes. 
In  this  way  they  will  run  very  slight  risk  of  breakage  during  their  travels. 
It  is  well  to  remember  also — especially  when  using  isochromatic  plates — 
that  hotel  dark  rooms  are  often  not  quite  light-tight,  and  that  it  is  wise  to 
remain  in  your  darkened  bedroom  some  time  before  deciding  that  you 
have  shut  out  all  the  light  and  so  rendered  the  room  safe  for  handling 
extremely  sensitive  films.  Otherwise  the  season's  work  may  be  found  on 
development  to  be  very  disappointing.  Many  workers  find  the  small 
portable  changing  bags  useful  and  safe  for  this  purpose.  The  re- 
placing of  the  plates  or  films  in  the  dark  backs  must  all  be  done  by  the 
sense  of  touch,  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to  be  systematic  in  your  pro- 
ceedings, otherwise  considerable  confusion  may  occur.  These  bags  are 
only  suitable  for  plates  up  to  half-plate  size.  They  can  be  home-made  of  a 
double  thickness  of  black  twill.  Of  the  type  with  eye-piece  and  ruby 
window  the  '  Shepherd  '  is  a  good  example. 

Probably  the  most  convenient  travelling  lamp  is  one  of  a  triangular 
form  holding  a  night  light,  with  sides  of  ruby  fabric,  not  glass.  Good 
patterns  are  Redding's  and  the  '  Traveller.' 

The  exposures  required  do  not  on  the  whole  differ  very  much  from 
those  necessary  in  the  valleys  and  plains.  The  safest  plan  is  to  make 
use  of  an  exposure  meter,  or  one  of  the  set  tables  of  exposures  calculated 
for  ordinary  use.     A  little  curtailment  of  these  will  be  necessary  for  most 


CXXXVlll  INTRODUCTION. 

subjects,  and  even  then  there  may  perhaps  have  been  slight  over- 
exposure, which  is  a  fault  on  the  right  side  and  can  be  corrected  in  develop- 
ment. For  a  picture  in  which  there  is  nothing  but  brilliantly  illuminated 
snow  and  ice  the  exposure  must,  however,  be  very  much  shortened,  to  avoid 
the  risk  of  losing  the  half-tones,  and  for  views  of  this  kind  it  is  better  to 
have  the  sun  as  much  as  possible  in  front  of  the  camera. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  climber  labours  under  the  great  disadvantage  of 
not  always  being  able  to  pick  and  choose  the  time  of  day  at  which  he 
would  like  to  take  his  photograph,  but  as  a  general  rule  the  early  hours  of 
the  forenoon  and  the  later  hours  of  the  afternoon  are,  in  summer,  the  best 
for  the  lighting  of  the  mountains,  as  the  light  is  then  more  evenly  diffused 
and  the  shadows  less  dense.  In  the  concentrated  glare  of  midday  the 
contrast  of  light  and  shade  are  apt  to  be  too  violent,  and  there  is  inevitable 
risk  of  over-exposure  as  regards  the  snow,  or  hopeless  under-exposure  in 
the  case  of  rocks  in  shadow. 

During  the  first  season  of  his  photographic  labours  amongst  the 
mountains  the  climber  should  develop  his  plates,  or  at  least  a  portion  of 
them,  as  soon  as  possible,  in  order  to  guide  him  in  the  matter  of 
exposures.  When  he  has  gained  sufficient  experience  he  will  probably 
prefer  to  postpone  development  until  his  return  home,  for  the  distractions 
of  a  climbing  centre  are  decidedly  unfavourable  to  the  exercise  of  that 
amount  of  patience  and  care  necessary  for  obtaining  the  best  results. 
A  detailed  description  of  the  developers,  which  must  necessarily  vary 
according  to  the  speed  of  the  plates  and  the  different  makes,  is  hardly 
necessary.  Each  probably  possesses  enthusiastic  advocates  who  can 
put  forward  unanswerable  arguments  in  favour  of  their  pet  developer. 

With  regard  to  the  choice  of  subjects,  so  much  depends  on  the  aesthetic 
perception  of  the  individual  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give  definite 
advice.  One  of  the  chief  points  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  a  proper  balance 
of  proportion  in  the  subject,  to  secure  which  a  due  amount  of  discrimi- 
nation must  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of  a  lens  of  the  correct  focal  length 
for  the  subject ;  for  it  is  most  important  that  the  photograph  should 
convey  a  true  impression  of  the  peak  or  mountain  landscape  as  seen  from 
the  point  at  which  it  is  taken.  Too  great  an  expanse  of  sky  tends  to 
dwarf  the  peaks,  and  the  photographer  must  guard  against  the  common 
fault  of  including  too  much  in  his  picture. 

Mountain  views  usually  look  best  taken  with  the  plate  turned  vertically, 
but  to  this  rule  there  are  necessarily  exceptions,  such  as  the  views  of 
Mont  Blanc  from  the  neighbouring  summits,  or  such  views  as  that  of  the 
great  wall  of  peaks  which  overhang  the  Argentiere  Glacier.  Panoramic 
views  should  be  taken  horizontally,  but  these  are  as  a  rule  more  useful 
than  pictorial.  Clouds  add  very  much  to  the  artistic  effect  of  the  picture, 
and  the  climber  should  never  be  persuaded  to  leave  the  camera  behind  on 
what  may  appear  to  be  a  hopeless  day  for  photography,  for  during  cloudy 
weather,  or  after  a  storm,  he  will  probably  secure  some  of  his  finest  pictures. 

If  a  foreground  is  to  be  included  it  must  be  good  of  its  kind.  A  bad 
foreground  may  entirely  spoil  an  otherwise  satisfactory  view,  and  should 
be  left  out  altogether  ;  or  should  this  be  impossible  it  will  be  better  to 
leave  the  subject  alone,  unless  the  photograph  is  desired  for  merely 
topographical  purposes. 


PHOTOGRAPHY   IN   THE   HIGH   ALPS.  CXXxix 

During  the  last  few  years,  since  the  introduction  by  Mr.  Dallmeyer  of 
his  telephotographic  /ens,  the  production  of  pictures  of  distant  objects  by 
this  means  has  come  a  good  deal  to  the  fore.  There  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  comparative  advantages  of  photographing 
a  distant  object  with  an  ordinary  long-focus  lens,  with  subsequent 
enlargement  from  the  negative  so  obtained,  and  producing  a  large  image 
direct  by  the  use  of  a  telephotographic  lens.  There  is  no  question  that 
higher  degrees  of  magnification  can  be  obtained  by  telephotography,  as,, 
in  the  case  of  an  enlargement  from  an  ordinary  negative,  the  final  degree 
of  magnification  is  reached  when  the  enlarged  grain  of  the  plate  coating 
becomes  unpleasantly  visible.  Many  workers  with  telephotographic  lenses 
have  found  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  satisfactory  density  in  their  nega- 
tives, but  from  results  obtained  by  some  photographers  it  seems  likely  that 
this  failure  was  due  to  faults  in  manipulation,  although  no  doubt  highly 
magnified  images  often  tend  to  be  thinner  than  those  less  magnified. 
Probably  the  best  telephotographic  work  has  been  done  elsewhere  than 
in  the  mountains,  where  the  rays  from  the  distant  object  have  traversed 
an  atmosphere  of  tolerably  uniform  density  overlying  land  of  uniform 
configuration  or  wide  stretches  of  water.  In  the  mountains  it  is  far 
otherwise  :  the  photographer  is  viewing  his  distant  peak  over  deep  valleys 
where  practically  no  radiation  reaches  the  upper  part  of  the  air,  and  over 
ridges  of  rock  or  snow  from  which  the  most  intense  heat  is  being  reflected 
into  the  layer  of  air  through  which  the  light  rays  are  passing.  Hence 
the  rays  are  bent  and  distorted,  and  a  blurred  image  is  produced.  More- 
over, owing  to  the  longer  exposure  required  with  the  telephotographic 
combination,  the  image  produced  by  this  is  more  apt  to  suffer  from  these 
conditions  than  is  that  produced  by  the  ordinary  lens.  No  one,  however, 
can  help  recognising  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  topography,  and  for 
purposes  of  mountain  exploration,  this  method  is  most  valuable.  On  the 
other  hand  the  artistic  mind  may  fairly  object  to  a  foreground  which  is 
actually  some  three  or  four  miles  distant,  but  in  which  the  windows  of 
the  houses  are  plainly  visible. 

Turning  to  the  practical  side  of  the  question,  we  have  to  consider 
what  modification  of  the  ordinary  camera  and  lens  is  necessary  for  this 
work.  The  camera  must  have  a  long  extension  bellows,  opening  to  17 
or  20  inches  in  the  half-plate  size,  for  the  degree  of  magnification  depends 
with  any  given  lens  combination  on  the  distance  of  the  focussing  screen 
from  the  negative  lens.  The  negative  lens  which,  attached  to  the  back 
of  the  positive,  forms  the  telephotographic  combination  may  be  either 
fitted  to  one  of  Dallmeyer's  own  Rapid  Rectilinear  lenses  or  to  any 
similar  lens  of  a  good  maker  which  will  work  at  F/8.  Zeiss  and 
Voigtlander  also  make  a  similar  negative  combination.  The  angle  of 
view  included  is  about  I2°-I5°. 

The  whole  lens  is  probably  best  mounted  for  Alpine  photography  in 
aluminium,  to  save  weight  ;  if  extreme  magnification  is  desired  a  high- 
power  negative  lens  combined  with  a  portrait  lens  will  be  necessary,  but 
this  is  too  cumbersome  and  expensive  for  ordinary  purposes. 

When  using  this  lens  the  rigidity  of  the  camera  and  its  stand  must  be 
carefully  attended  to.  Owing  to  the  camera  being  racked  out  to  its  full 
extent,  and  the  exposure  being  somewhat  prolonged,  this  is  really  a  very 


Cxi  INTRODUCTION. 

great  difficulty  in  Alpine  telephotography.  On  a  mountain  ridge  wind  is 
rarely  absent,  and  if  a  source  of  difficulty  when  using  an  ordinary  lens, 
with  a  camera  extended  9  inches,  it  is  doubly  so  with  this  lens  and  an  ex- 
tension of  20  inches.  Every  plan  for  sheltering  and  anchoring  the  camera, 
with  a  string  and  stone,  or  by  using  an  extra  strut  to  the  front,  must  be 
employed,  and  in  buying  a  new  camera  it  is  well  to  avoid  too  light  a 
pattern.  Obviously  with  this  high  magnification  any  vibration  becomes 
evident  in  the  negative. 

Accurate  focussing,  both  by  means  of  the  rack  and  pinion  on  the  lens 
and  finally  by  the  camera  pinion,  is  necessary,  and  a  focussing  glass  should 
be  employed.     The  focussing  should  be  done  with  the  actual  stop  used. 

In  distant  photography  with  this  lens  it  is  always  wise  to  use  an 
orange  screen. 

It  is  necessary  to  remember  that,  owing  to  the  narrow  angle  embraced 
in  these  views,  it  is  advisable  to  choose  a  point  of  view  as  nearly  level 
with  the  object  to  be  photographed  as  possible,  otherwise  the  angle  to 
which  the  camera  must  be  tilted  results  in  great  distortion  of  the  per- 
spective.    This  to  some  extent  limits  the  usefulness  of  the  lens. 

No  precise  rules  can  be  laid  down  here  as  to  the  comparative  length  of 
exposure  necessary  when  photographing  an  object  with  an  ordinary 
rapid  rectilinear  lens,  and  with  the  same  lens  used  with  a  negative  lens 
to  form  a  telephotographic  combination,  as  this  must  depend  upon  the 
length  of  camera  extension  and  the  degree  of  stopping  down  that  maybe 
necessary.  Full  details  for  calculating  the  exposures  at  various  degrees 
of  extension  are  supplied  in  the  instructions  issued  by  the  makers  of 
these  lenses,  but  it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  exposure  works  out  at  a 
considerable  multiple  of  that  required  with  the  positive  lens.  It  will  be  seen 
that  when  a  yellow  screen  is  used  the  exposure  will  thus  often  extend  to 
ten  to  fifteen  seconds,  and  this  explains  why  wind  vibration  is  so  trouble- 
some and  difficult  to  avoid.  But  snap-shot  work  has  been  done  with 
this  lens,  and  it  is  important  to  remember  that  under-  rather  than  over- 
exposure is  to  be  aimed  at,  and  very  prolonged  and  gradual  development 
employed,  until  no  further  change  in  the  plate  can  be  seen.  The  time 
of  development  may  easily  extend  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  A 
developer  strong  in  reducer  and  fairly  well  restrained  should  be  employed. 
Most  workers  will  probably  find  hydrokinon  convenient  for  such  long  de- 
velopment, but  many  successful  workers  use  pyrogallic  acid  and  ammonia 
or  soda.  It  is  hardly  needful  to  point  out  the  importance  of  keeping 
the  plate  well  protected  from  the  red  light  during  this  long  development. 

In  conclusion  let  us  insist  that,  whatever  the  method  employed  may  be, 
the  photographer  should  above  all  endeavour  to  impress  his  work  with 
an  individuality  of  its  own,  and  thereby  show  how  much  the  artistic 
temperament  can  achieve  with  mechanical  material.  Finally,  let  him 
not  be  discouraged  by  failure  in  his  early  efforts,  for  he  will  do  well  to 
remember  that  in  this,  as  in  most  pursuits,  theory  is  but  a  signpost  on 
the  road  to  success,  and  that  practice  alone  makes  the  master. 

Further  detailed  information  of  a  valuable  nature  on  this  subject  will 
be  found  in  a  chapter  by  Mr.  Clinton  Dent  in  the  Badminton  volume  on 
'  Mountaineering,'  and  also  in  a  chapter  by  Captain  Abney  in  the  '  Barnet 
Book  of  Photography.' 


APPENDICES. 

APPENDIX   a. 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  AND   MAPS  RELATING  TO  THE  ALPS, 
i.  Books. 

[The  following  list  is  intended  to  include  all  the  more  important  books  relating 
to  the  Alps,  but  makes  no  pretensions  to  be  a  complete  Alpine  Bibliography. 
Works  relating  exclusively  to  the  physical  sciences,  as  well  as  articles  in  periodi- 
cals, are  purposely  excluded  from  it,  while  lists  of  Guide-books  and  Alpine 
Periodicals  are  more  fitly  given  in  the  *  Preliminary  Notes '  to  each  of  the  volumes 
of  the  new  edition  of  the  '  Alpine  Guide. ' 

The  nearest  approach  to  an  exhaustive  Alpine  Bibliography  (it  is  practically 
complete  so  far  as  regards  Switzerland  and  the  neighbouring  districts)  is  the  work 
entitled  '  Landes-  und  Reisebeschreibungen,'  by  Herr  A.  Waber,  which  was 
issued  in  1899  at  Bern  as  part  iii.  of  the  extensive  '  Bibliographic  der  Schweizer- 
ischen  Landeskunde,'  published  by  the  Swiss  Government.] 

Aeby,  C,  Fellenberg,  E.  v.,  and  Gerwer,  R.    Das  Hochgebirge  von  Grindelwald. 

Coblenz,  1865. 
Allais,  G.     Le  Alpi  Occidentali  nelP  Antichita.     Turin,  1891. 
Aimer's,   Christian,   Fiihrerbuch,    1 856- 1 894.       A   facsimile   edition.     London, 

1896. 
Alpenivirthsckaft  der  Schweiz  im  Jahre  1864,  Die.     Bern,  1868. 
Alpi  che  cingono  P  Italia,  Le.     Part  i.  of  vol.  i.  alone  published.     Turin,  1845. 
Alpstatistik,  Schweizerische.     Solothurn. 

Now  appearing  in  Parts,  of  which  eight  (by  different  authors)  have  as  yet  been 

issued,  dealing  respectively  with  the  Cantons  of  Baselland  (1894),  Solothurn 

(1896),  St.  Gallen  (1896),  Nidwalden  (1896),  Uri  (1898),  Glarus  (1898), 

Schwyz  (1899),  and  Appenzell  Inner  Rhoden  (1899). 

Altmann,  J.    G.     Versuch  einer  historischen  und  physischen  Beschreibung  der 

Helvetischen  Eisbergen.     Zurich,  1751. 
Anderegg,  Felix.     Illustriertes  Lehrbuch  flir  das  gesamte  schweizerische  Alpwirth- 
schaft.     3  parts.     Bern,  1897-8. 

/'.    A.     Relation  des    Passages  de   tout   le  Circuit  du  Duche  d'Aoste 


Cxlii  INTRODUCTION. 

venant   des   Provinces   circonvoisines,    avec   une   description    sommaire    des 
Montagnes,  169 1-4. 
MS.  preserved  in  the  State  Archives  at  Turin,  and  onty  partially  published. 
For  further  particulars  see  the  new  edition  of  the  '  Alpine  Guide,'  vol.  i. 
p.  xiii. 
Attldjo,  J.     Narrative  of  an  Ascent'  to  the  Summit  of  Mont  Blanc  on  the  8th 
and  9th  of  August,  1827.     London,  1828. 
Later  editions  in  1830  and  1856. 
Baillie-Grohman,    W.  A.     Tyrol  and  the  Tyrol ese  :  the  People  and  the  Land 
in   their   Social,    Sporting,    and    Mountaineering   Aspects.     London,    1876. 
(2nd  edition,  1877.) 
Baillie-Grokman,  W.  A.     Gaddings  with  a  Primitive  People.    2  vols.   London, 

1878. 
Baillie-Grokman,  W.  A.     Sport  in  the  Alps.     London,  1896. 
Barth,  Hermann  von.     Aus  den  nordlichen  Kalkalpen.     Gera,  1874. 
Barth)  Z.,  and  Pfautidler,  L.     Die  Stubaier  Gebirgsgruppe  hypsometrisch  und 

orographisch  bearbeitet.     Innsbruck,  1865. 
Berlefisch)  H.  A.     Die    Alpen  in  Natur-  und  Lebensbildern.     Leipzig,   1861. 
(5th  edition,  Jena,  1885.)     English  translation  by  Leslie  Stephen.      London, 
1861. 
Berlepsch,  H.  A.     Schweizerkunde  ;  Land  und  Volk  iibersichtlich  vergleichend 

dargestellt.     Brunswick,  1864.     (2nd  edition,  1875.) 
Bernenshim,  Fontes  Rerum.     Bern's    Geschichtsquellen.     7    vols,    (with   Index 

volume),  extending  to  1353.     Bern,  1883-1893. 
Bianchetti)  Enrico.     L'  Ossola  Inferiore  :  notizie  storiche  e  documenti.     2  vols. 

(one  of  text  and  one  of  original  documents. )     Turin,  1878. 
Biellese,  II.     Milan,  1898. 

Published  by  the  Biella  Section  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  on  occasion  of 
the  Congress  there  in  1898. 
Bonnefoy^  J.  A.,  and Perrin,  A.     Le  Prieure  de  Chamonix  :   documents  relatifs 
au  Prieure  et  a  la  Vallee  de  Chamonix.     2  vols.     Chambery,  1879- 1883. 
See  also  Per  r  in. 
Bonney,    7.    G.     Outline  Sketches  in  the  High  Alps  of  Dauphine.     London, 

1865. 
Bonney,    T.    G.     The  Alpine    Regions   of  Switzerland   and   the  Neighbouring 

Countries.     London,   1868. 
Bonstetten,  Albert  von.     Superioris  Germanise  Confcederationis  Descriptio. 

The  first  description  of  Switzerland,  written  in  1479  :  the  Latin  and  German 
texts   have    been    well    edited   in   vol.    xiii.,   1893,  of  the  '  Quellen  zur 
Schweizer  Geschichte,'  published  at  Basel. 
Bordier,  A.   C.     Voyage  Pittoresque  aux  Glacieres  de  Savoye.     Fait  en  1772. 

Geneva,   1773. 
Botircet,   P.  J.   de.     Memoires   Militaires  sur  les  Frontieres  de  la  France,  du 
Piemont,    et   de   la  Savoie,  depuis  PEmbouchure  du  Var  jusqu'au   Lac  de 
Geneve.     Paris  and  Berlin,  1801. 
Only  partly  by  M.  de  Bourcet. 
Bourrit,  M.  T.     Description  des  Glacieres,  Glaciers,  et  Amas  de  Glace  du  Duche 
de  Savoye.     Geneva,  1773. 
English  translation  by  C.  and  F.  Davy.     3  editions,  1775-6,  at  Norwich  and 
Dublin. 
Bourrit,    M.     T.       Description    des   Alpes   Pennines   et    Rhetiennes.     2    vols. 
Geneva,  1781. 
In  1783  this  work  was  reprinted  at  Geneva  under  the  title  of   '  Nouvelle 


LIST  OF   BOOKS  AND   MAPS   RELATING  TO   THE  ALPS.  cxliii 

Description  des  Vallees  de  Glace,'  and  again  in  1785  in  3  vols,  under  the 
title  of  '  Nouvelle  Description  G£ne>ale  et  Particuliere  des  Glacieres, 
Vallees  de  Glace,  et  Glaciers  qui  forment  la  grande  chaine  des  Alpes  de 
Suisse,  d'ltalie,  et  de  Savoye.' 
Bourrit,  M.  T.  Descriptions  des  Cols  ou  Passages  des  Alpes.  2  vols.  Geneva, 
1803. 

These  three  works  are  the  most  important  of  the  number  published  by  this 
author. 
Brockedon,  IV.     Illustrations  of  the  Passes  of  the  Alps  by  which  Italy  communi- 
cates with  France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.     2  vols.     London,  1828-9. 
Brockedon,    W.     Journals   of  Excursions   in    the   Alps :    the    Pennine,    Graian, 
Cottian,  Rhetian,  Lepontian,  and  Bernese.     London,   1833.     (3rd  edition  in 

1845.) 
Burchy  Lambert  van  der.     Sabaudorum  ducum  principumque  historiae  gentilitice. 
Leyden,  1599. 
The  Elzevir  edition  (Leyden,   1634)  is  entitled  *  Sabaudiae  Respublica   et 
Historia.' 
Busk,  Miss  R.  H.     The  Valleys  of  Tirol :  their  Traditions  and  Customs,  and 

How  to  Visit  them.     London,  1874. 
Campell,     Ulrich.       Raetiae    Alpestris    Topographica    Descriptio.     Finished    in 

1572. 
Campell,  Ulrich.     Historia  Raetica.     Finished  by  1577. 

These  two  important  works   were  published  at  Basel  as  vols.  vii.  (1884), 
viii.  (1887),  and  ix.  (1890)  of  the  '  Quellen  zur  Schweizer  Geschichte.' 
Carl  von  Oesterreich,  Erzherzog.     Ausgewahlte  Schriften.     Vienna  and  Leipzig. 

Vol.  iii.  (1893)  narrates  the  campaign  of  1799  in  Switzerland. 
Chabrand,  J.   A.,  and  Rochas  d'Aiglun,   A.   de.     Patois  des  Alpes  Cottiennes 
(Brianconnais  et  Vallees  Vaudoises)  et  en  particulier  du  Queyras.     Grenoble 
and  Paris,  1877. 
Christoman/ws,     Th.       Sulden-Trafoi :    Schilderungen   aus   dem  Ortlergebiete. 

Innsbruck,  1895. 
Cole,  Mrs.     A  Lady's  Tour  Round  Monte  Rosa.     London,  1859. 
Coleman,  E.    T.     Scenes  from  the  Snow  Fields  :  being  Illustrations  from    the 

Upper  Ice-World  of  Mont  Blanc.     London,  1859. 
Conway,  Sir  Martin.     The  Alps  from  End  to  End.     London,  1895. 
Coolidge,  W.  A.  B.     Swiss  Travel  and  Swiss  Guide-Books.     London,  1889. 

Contains  a  history  of  Swiss  Guide-books,  of  Alpine  Inns,  and  of  Zermatt, 
with  a  list  of  Books  of  Swiss  Travel. 
Coxe,  W.     Travels  in  Switzerland  and  in  the  Country  of  the  Grisons.     3  vols. 

London,  1801  (4th  and  best  edition). 
Cunningham,    C.    D.,    and  Abney,    W.    de    W.     The    Pioneers  of  the    Alps. 
London,  1887.     (2nd  edition,  1888.) 
Lives  of  Famous  Guides. 
Daudet,  Alphonse.     Tartarin  sur  les  Alpes.     Paris,  1885.     (English  translation, 

same  date. ) 
Del uc,  J.  A.,  and  Dentan,  P.  G.     Relation  de  Difi&rents  Voyages  dans  les  Alpes 

du  Faucigny.     Maestricht,  1776. 
Denty   Clinton   T.     Above  the  Snow  Line:  Mountaineering   Sketches  between 

1870  and  1880.     London,  1885. 
Dent,  Clinton  T.,  and  others.     Mountaineering.     London,  1892. 

In  the 'Badminton  Library.'     German  translation.     \j £psk*,  1893. 
Desjardins,  Ernest.     Geographic  de  la  Gaule  Romaine.     4  vols.     Paris,  1876- 
1893. 


Cxliv  INTRODUCTION. 

Desor,  E.     Excursions  et  Sejours  dans  les  Glaciers  et  les  Hautes  Regions  des 

Alpes  de  M.  Agassiz  et  de  ses  compagnons  de  voyage.     2  Series.     Neuchatel 

and  Paris,  1844  and  l%4$- 
Dumas,  Alexandre.     Impressions  de  Voyage — Suisse.     Paris,  1833  or  1834. 
Durier,  Charles.     Le  Mont  Blanc.      Paris,  1877.     4th  edition,  1897. 
Ebel,  J.    G.     Schilderungen  der  Gebirgsvolker  der  Schweiz.     2  vols.     Leipzig, 

1 798- 1 802. 
Eckenstein,  O.,  and  Lorria,  A.     The  Alpine  Portfolio— The  Pennine  Alps  from 

the  Simplon  to  the  Great  St.  Bernard.     London,  1889. 
Eckerth,    W.     Die  Gebirgsgruppe  des  Monte  Cristallo.     Prague,    1887.     (2nd 

edition,  1891.) 
Edwards,   Miss  Amelia  B.     Untrodden  Peaks  and  Unfrequented  Valleys  :    A 

Midsummer  Ramble  in  the  Dolomites.     London,  1873. 
E>ggtr,J.     Geschichte  Tirols.     3  vols.     Innsbruck,  1872- 1880. 
Egli,  Emil.     Kirchengeschichte  der  Schweiz  bis  auf  Karl  den  Grossen.     Zurich, 

l893- 
Engelhai'dt,    C.    M.       Naturschilderungen,    Sittenziige,    und    wissenschaftliche 

Bemerkungen  aus  den  hochsten  Schweizer-Alpen,  besonders  in    Sud-Wallis 

und  Graubiinden.     Paris,  Strasburg,  and  Basel,  1840. 
Engelhardt,    C.   M.     Das   Monte- Rosa  und    Matterhorn-(Mont    Cervin)-Gebirg 

aus   der  Inseite   seines   Erhebungsbogen   gen    Nord ;    seine    Auslaufer   und 

Umgrenzung,    besonders    der  Saasgrat  mit   dem    Mischabeldom   iiber   dem 

Gletscherkrater  von  Fee.     Paris  and  Strasburg,  1852. 
Ferrand,  Henri.     Histoire  du  Mont  Iseran.     Grenoble,  1893. 
Ferrand,  Henri.   La  Frontiere  Franco-Italienne  entre  le  Mont-Thabor  et  le  Petit 

Saint  Bernard.     Grenoble,  1894. 
Forbes,  James  D.     Travels  in  the  Alps  of  Savoy  and  other  parts  of  the  Pennine 

Chain.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1843.     (2nd  edition,  1845.) 
Forbes,  James  D.     Norway  and  its  Glaciers  visited  in  1851  ;  followed  by  Journals 

of  Excursions  in  the  High  Alps  of  Dauphine,  Berne,  and  Savoy.    London,  1853. 
Forbes,  Sir  John.     A   Physician's  Holiday,  or  a  Month  in  Switzerland  in  the 

Summer  of  1848.     London,  1849.     (2nd  edition,  1850.) 
Freshfield,    D.     W.     Across   Country   from   Thonon    to   Trent  :    Rambles   and 

Scrambles  in  Switzerland  and  the  Tyrol.     London,  1865  (privately  printed). 
Freshfield,  D.  W.     Italian  Alps :  Sketches  in  the  Mountains  of  Ticino,  Lombardy, 

the  Trentino,  and  Venetia.     London,  1875. 
Freshfield,  Mrs.  Henry.     Alpine  Byways,  or  Light  Leaves  gathered  in  1859  and 

i860.     London,  1 861. 
Freshfield,  Mrs.  Henry.  A  Summer  Tour  in  the  Grisons  and  Italian  Valleys  of  the 

Bernina.     London,  1862. 
Frey,  Jacob.     Die  Alpen  im  Lichte  verschiedener  Zeitalter.     Berlin,  1877. 
Friedldnder,  Ludwig.     Ueber  die  Entstehung  und   Entwickelung  des  Gefuhls 

fur  das  Romantische  in  der  Natur.     Leipzig,  1873. 
Frobel,  Julius.     Reise  in  die  weniger  bekannten  Thaler  auf  der  Nordseite  der 

Penninischen  Alpen.     Berlin,  1840. 
Fuchs,  Josef.     Hannibal's  Alpeniibergang.     Vienna,  1897. 
Furrer,  Sigismund.    Geschichte,  Statistik,  und  Urkunden-Sammlung  iiber  Wallis. 

2  vols.     Sion,  1850-2. 
Gay,  Hilaire.     Histoire  du  Vallais.     2  vols.     Paris  and  Geneva,  1888-9. 
Gelpke,  E.  F.   Kirchengeschichte  der  Schweiz.     2  vols.     Bern,  1 856- 1 861. 
Gelpke,  E.  F.     Die  Christliche  Sagengeschichte  der  Schweiz.     Bern,  1862. 
George,  H.  B.     The  Oberland  and  its  Glaciers :  Explored  and  Illustrated  with 

Ice- Axe  and  Camera.     London,  1866. 


LIST  OF   BOOKS  AND   MAPS   RELATING  TO  THE  ALPS.  cxlv 

Gesner,    Conrad.     Epistola  ad  Jacobum    Avienum   de   Montium  Admiratione. 
Zurich,  1 54 1. 
Prefixed  to  Gesner's  '  Libellus  de  lacte  et  operibus  lactariis. ' 
Gesfter,  Conrad.     Descriptio  Montis  Fracti  sive  Montis  Pilati.     Zurich,  1555. 
Gilbert,  Josiah.     Cadore,  or  Titian's  Country.     London,  1869. 
Gilbert,  Josiah,    and   Churchill,   G.    C.     The  Dolomite    Mountains.     London, 

1864.     German  translation,  Klagenfurt,  1865. 
Gioffredo,  Pietro.     Storia  delle  Alpi  Marittime.     Turin,  1839. 
Girdlestone,  A.  G.     The  High  Alps  Without  Guides.     London,  1870. 
Gnifetti,  G.     Nozioni  Topografiche  del  Monte   Rosa  ed  Ascensioni  su  di  esso. 

2nd  edition.     Novara,  1858. 
Gremaud,  J.     Documents  relatifs  a  l'Histoire  du  Vallais,  A.D.  300-1431.     7  vols. 

Lausanne,  187  5- 1894. 
Grower,  G.,  and  Rabl,  J.     Die  Entwickelung  der  Hochtouristik  in  den  Oester- 

reichischen  Alpen.     Vienna,  1890. 
Grohmann,  Paul.     Wanderungen  in  den  Dolomiten.     Vienna,  1877. 
Gruner,  G.  S.     Die  Eisgebirge  des  Schweizerlandes.     3  vols.     Bern,  1760. 
Gihither,  K.     Der  Feldzug  der  Division  Lecourbe  im  Schweizerischen  Hochge- 

birge.     Frauenfeld,  1896. 
Giissfeldt,   Paul.     In  den  Hochalpen.     Erlebnisse  aus  den  Jahren  1859-1885. 

Berlin,  1886. 
Giissfeldt,  Paul.     Der  Montblanc.     Berlin,  1894. 

French  translation.     Geneva,  1898. 
Haller,  Albrecht  von.     Die  Alpen.     Bern,  1732. 

This  famous  poem  appeared  in  the  first  edition  of  the  author's   *  Gedichte  ; ' 
a   convenient   annotated   edition  of    the  *  Gedichte '   was  edited   by   L. 
Hirzel  at  Frauenfeld  in  1882. 
Harpprecht,  Th.     Bergfahrten.     Stuttgart,  1886. 
Hartmann,  Otto.     Der  Antheil  der  Russenam  Feldzug  von  1799  m  der  Schweiz. 

Zurich,  1892. 
Hegetschweiler,  Joh.     Reisen   in  den  Gebirgsstock  zwischen  Glarus  und  Grau- 

biinden  in  den  Jahren  1819,  1820,  und  1822.     Zurich,  1825. 
Herzog,  H.     Schweizerische  Volksfeste,  Sitten,  und  Gebrauche.     Aarau,  1884. 
Heusler,  A.     Rechtsquellen  des  Cantons  Wallis.     Basel,  1890. 
Hinchliff,  T.  IV.     Summer  Months  among  the  Alps  :  with  the  Ascent  of  Monte 

Rosa.     London,  1857. 
Hirzel- Escher.     Wanderungen  in  weniger  besuchte  Alpengegenden  der  Schweiz, 

und  ihrer  nachsten  Umgebungen.     Zurich,  1829. 
Hoffmann,  Georg.     Wanderungen  in  der  Gletscherwelt.     Zurich,  1843. 
Hudson,    C,   and  Kennedy,   E.  S.     Where  there's  a  Will  there's  a  Way  :  an 
Ascent   of  Mont   Blanc   by  a  New  Route  and  Without  Guides.     London, 
1856. 

2nd  edition  (1856)  has  also  an  account  of  the  first  ascent  of  Monte  Rosa. 
Hugi,  F.  J.     Naturhistorische  Alpenreise.     Solothurn,  1830. 
Hugi,  F.  J.     Ueber  das  Wesen  der  Gletscher  und  Winterreise  in  das  Eismeer. 

Stuttgart  and  Tubingen,  1842. 
Idiotikon,  Schweizerisches  (Swiss-German  Dialect  Dictionary.) 

In  course  of  publication  since  1881  at  Frauenfeld  ;  has  now  (April  1899) 
reached  the  letter  ■  P.' 
Javelle,    Emile.      Souvenirs  d'un    Alpiniste.     Lausanne,    1886.       (3rd   edition, 
1897.) 

r,S.W.     The  Italian  Valleys  of  the  Pennine  Alps.     London,  1858. 
Kohlrusch,  E.     Schweizerisches  Sagenlmch.     Leiptrig*  1854. 


Cxlvi  INTRODUCTION. 

Laborde,  J.   B.   de,  and  Zurlauben,  F.  A.  de.     Tableaux  Topographiques,  Pit- 

toresques,  Physiques,  Historiques,  Moraux,  Politiques,  Litteraires  de  la  Suisse. 

Paris,  1777-80.     2  vols,  of  text  and  2  more  with  the  278  Plates. 
Lalrobe,  C.  J.     The  Alpenstock  ;  or  Sketches  of  Swiss  Scenery  and  Manners, 

1825-6.     London,  1829.     (2nd  edition,  1839.) 
Latrobe,  C.  J.     The  Pedestrian  :  a  Summer's  Ramble  in  the  Tyrol.     London, 

1832. 
Lechner,    E.     Piz  Languard  und   die    Bernina-Gruppe.     Leipzig,    1858.     (2nd 

edition,  1865.) 
Lechner,  E.     Das   Thai  Bergell  (Bregaglia)   in   Graublinden,    mit   Chiavenna. 

Leipzig,  1865.     (2nd  edition,  1874.) 
Lendenfeld,  R.  von.     Aus  den  Alpen  :  die  Westalpen  und  die  Ostalpen.     2  vols. 

Prague,  Vienna,  and  Leipzig,  1896. 
Leonhardi,  G.     Das  Poschiavinothal.     Leipzig,  1859. 
Leonardi,   G.     Das  Veltlin,  nebst  einer  Beschreibung  der  Bader  von  Bormio. 

Leipzig,  i860. 
Lorria,  A.,  and  Martel,  E.  A.     Le  Massif  de  la  Bernina.     Zurich,  1894. 
Lowl,  Ferdinand.     Aus  dem  Zillerthaler  Hochgebirge.     Gera,  1878. 
Lurani,  F.     Le  Montagne  di  Val  Masino  (Valtellina).     Milan,  1883. 
Liitolf,  Alois.     Sagen,   Brauche,   und  Legenden  aus  den  Ftinf  Orten,  Lucern, 

Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  und  Zug.     Lucerne,  1865. 
Liitolf,    Alois.      Die   Glaubensboten   der   Schweiz  vor   St.    Gallus.      Lucerne, 

1871. 
Main  (Burnaby)  Mrs.    The  High  Alps  in  Winter.     London,  1883. 
Mathews,  C.  E.     The  Annals  of  Mont  Blanc  :  a  Monograph.     London,  1898. 
McCrackan,    W.  D.     The  Rise  of  the   Swiss  Republic.     Boston   (Mass.)   and 

London,  1892. 
Menabrea,  Leon.     Des  Origines  Feodales  dans  les  Alpes  Occidentales.     Turin, 

1865. 
Merian,    Matthew,    and  Zeiller,  Martin.     Topographia   Helvetia,  Rhsetiae,  et 

Valesise.     Frankfort,  1642. 
Meurer,  Julius.     Handbuch  des  Alpinen  Sport.     Vienna,  Pesth,  and  Leipzig, 

1882. 
Meyer,  J.  R.  a?id  H.     Reise  auf  den  Jungfrau-Gletscher  und  Ersteigung  seines 

Gipfels.     Aarau,  181 1. 
See  also  Zschokke. 
Miaskowski,  August  von.     Die  Schweizerische  Allmend  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen 

Entwickelung  vom  xiii.  Jahrhundert  bis  zur  Gegenwart.     Leipzig,  1879. 
Miaskowski,  August  vo7i.     Die  Verfassung  der  Land-,  Alpen-,  und   Forstwirth- 

schaft  der  deutschen  Schweiz  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung  vom  xiii. 

Jahrhundert  bis  zur  Gegenwart.     Basel,  1878. 
Michelet,J.     hs.  Montagne.     Paris,  1868. 

English  translation,  1872. 
Mohr,   Th.  and  Conradin  von.     Codex    Diplomaticus   ad    Historiam  Raeticam. 

Coire,  1848-1858.     3  vols. 
Vol.  iv.  (1863)  forms  vol.  i.  of  the  periodical  *  Ratia.' 
Montannel,  De.     La  Topographie  Militaire  de  la  Frontiere  des  Alpes.     Grenoble, 

1875. 
Moor,    Conradin   von.     Geschichte  von  Curratien  und  der  Republik  'gemeiner 

drei  Biinde  '  (Graublinden).     2  vols.     Coire,  1870-1. 
A  useful  detailed  chronological  Index  to  the  above  appeared  in  1873  at  Coire 
under  the    title   of    '  Historisch-Chronologischer   Wegweiser    durch    die 
Geschichte  Curratiens  und  der  Republik  Graubiinden. ' 


LIST  OF   BOOKS  AND   MAPS   RELATING  TO  THE  ALPS.  cxlvil 

Moore,  A.  W.     The  Alps  in  1864.     A  Private  Journal.     London,  1867  (privately 

printed)  :  a  published  edition  is  in  preparation. 
Mummery,  A.  F.     My  Climbs  in  the  Alps  and  the  Caucasus.     London  1895. 
Munster,  Sebastian.     Cosmographia.     German  edition  at  Basel,  1544,  and  Latin 

one  at  Basel  in  1550. 
Niischeler,  A.     Die  Gotteshauser  der  Schweiz. 

3  parts.     Zurich,  1864-73. 
Oder,  P.     L'Oberland  Bernois  sous  les  Rapports   Historique,    Scientifique,    et 

Topographique.     2  vols.     Berne,  1854. 
Operations  Giodesiques  et  Astronomiques  pour  la  Mesure  (Pun  Arc  du  Parallth 

Moyen.     2  vols.     Milan,  1825-7. 
Oesterreichisch-Ungarische  Monarchie  in  Wort  und  Bild,  Die.    Vienna.  Vol.  vi. 

Oberoesterreich  und  Salzburg,    1889;  vol.  vii.   Steiermark,   1890 ;  vol.   viii. 

Karnten  und  Krain,  1891  ;  vol.  xiii.  Tirol  und  Vorarlberg,  1893. 
Pallioppi,  Z.  and  E.     Dizionari  dels    Idioms  Romauntschs   d'Engiadina   ota  e 

bassa,  della  Val  Miistair,  da  Bravuogn,  e  Filisur,  con  particulera  consideraziun 

del  idiom  d'Engiadina  ota.     Samaden,  1895. 
Payer,  Julius.     Die  Adamello-Presanella  Alpen.     Gotha,  1865. 
Payer,  Julius.     Die  Ortler- Alpen  (Sulden-Gebiet  u.   Monte  Cevedale).     Gotha, 

1867. 
Payer,  Julius.     Die  westlichen  Ortler- Alpen  (Trafoier  Gebiet).     Gotha,  1868. 
Payer,  Julius.     Die  sikllichen  Ortler- Alpen.     Gotha,  1869. 
Payer,  Ju litis.     Die  centralen  Ortler-Alpen  (Martell,  &c.)     Gotha,  1872. 

These  five  pamphlets  form  '  Erganzungshefte '  nos.    17,    18,  23,  27,  and  31 
to  *  Petermann's  Mittheilungen. ' 
Peaks,  Passes,  and  Glaciers.      1st  Series,  edited  by  John  Ball.     London,   1859. 

2nd  Series,  2  vols.,  edited  by  E.  S.  Kennedy.     London,  1862. 
4  editions  of  1st  Series,  all  in  1859,  *  Knapsack'  edition,  i860,  and  partial 
French  translation  by  Elise  Dufour,  Paris,  1862. 
Perrin,    A.     Histoire  de  la   Vallee   et  du  Prieure  de  Chamonix  du   ioeme  au 

i8eme  Siecle.     Chambery,  1887. 
For  the  *  Documents '  see  under  Bomiefoy. 
Peyer,   G.     Geschichte   des    Reisens   in  #der  Schweiz :   eine  culturgeschichtliche 

Studie.     Basel,  1885. 
Pezay,  Marquis  de.     Description  des  Vallees  des  Grandes   Alpes  :    Dauphinl, 

Provence,  Italic     Grenoble  (in  French)  and  Turin  (in  Italian),  1793. 
The  most  convenient  edition  is  that  published  in  1894  at  Grenoble. 
Planta,  P.    C.  von.     Die  curratischen  Herrschaften  in  der  Feudalzeit.     Bern, 

1881. 
Planta,  P.  C.  von.     Geschichte  von  Graubiinden.     Bern,  1892. 
Rahn,  J.  R.     Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste  in  der  Schweiz  von  den  altesten 

Zeiten  biszum  Schlusse  des  Mittelalters.     Zurich,  1876. 
Rahn,  J.  R.     Kunstund  Wanderstudien  aus  der  Schweiz.     Vienna,  1883. 

The   same  author  has  also  published  (in  the   '  Anzeiger  fur  Schweizerische 
Alterthumskunde ')    many  lists  of  the   artistic   treasures    to   be  found  in 
several  of  the  Swiss  Cantons,  e.g.  Tessin. 
Rambert,  Eugbie.     Ascensions  et  Flaneries.     2  vols.     Lausanne,  1888. 
Rebmann,    H.     R.      Ein     Neuw,    Lustig,    ErnsthafTt,    Poetisch  Gastmal    und 

Gesprach  zweyer  Bergen,  in  der  Loblichen  EydnossschafTt,  und  im  Berner 

Gebiet  gelegen  :  Nemlich  des  Niesens  und  Stockhoms.     Bern,  1606. 
Enlarged  edition,  1620. 
Reding- Biberegg,  R.  von.     Der  Zug  SuworofTs  durch  die  Schweiz.     With  many 

plans.     Stans,  1895. 


Cxlviii  <  INTRODUCTION. 

Regesten  der  Archive  in  der  Schtveizerischen  Eidgenos  sense  haft.     2  vols.     Coirer 
1848-54. 

Contains  calendars  of  the  muniments  of  many  of  the  great  Swiss   monastic 
houses,  e.g.  Disentis,  Einsiedeln,  Interlaken,  Piavers. 
Rey,  R.     Le  Royaume  de  Cottius  et  la  Province  des  Alpes  Cottiennes  d'Auguste 

a  Diocletien.     Grenoble,  1898. 
Richter,  E.     Die  Erschliessung  der  Ostalpen.     3  vols.     Berlin,  1893-4. 
Rilliet,  Albert.     Les  Origines  de  la  Confederation  Suisse  :  Histoire  et  Legende. 

Geneva  and  Bale,  1868.     (2nd  edition,  1869.) 
Rochas   cPAiglun,    A.    de.      Les  Vallees  Vaudoises  :  Etude  de  Topographie  et 
d' Histoire  Militaires.     Paris,  1881. 
See  also  under  Chabrand. 
Rohrdorf,  Caspar.    Reise  liber  die  Grindelwald-Viescher-Gletscher  und  Ersteigung 
des    Gletschers    des   Jungfrau-Berges.     Unternommen   und   beschrieben   im 
August  und  September  1828.     Bern,  1828. 
Roman,  J.     Dictionnaire  Topographique  du  Departement  des  Hautes-Alpes. 
Roman,  J.     Tableau  Historique  du  Departement  des  Hautes-Alpes.     2  vols. 
Roman,  J.     Repertoire  Archeologique  du  Departement  des  Hautes-Alpes. 

These  three  splendid  works  were  published  at  Paris  in  1884,  1887- 1890,  and 
1888  respectively. 
Ruden,  J.     Familien-Statistik  der  loblichen  Pfarrei  von  Zermatt.     Ingenbohl, 

1870. 
Ruppen,  P.  J.     Die  Chronik  des  Thales  Saas.     Sion,  185 1. 
Ruthner,  A.   von.     Aus  den  Tauern  :   Berg-  und  Gletscher-Reisen  in  den  oster- 

reichischen  Hochalpen.     Vienna,  1864. 
Ruthner,  A.  von.     Aus  Tirol :  Berg-  und  Gletscher-Reisen  in  den  osterreichischen 

Hochalpen.     Vienna,  1869. 
Saleve,  Le.     Geneva,  1899. 

Published  by  the  Geneva  Section  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club. 
Saussure,  H.  B.  de.     Voyages  dans  les  Alpes.     4  vols.     Neuchatel  and  Geneva, 
1 779-1 796. 
The  '  Partie  Pittoresque  '  of  this  work  has  appeared  in  several  editions  since 

1834. 
Schaubach,A.     Deutsche  Alpen.     5  vols.     Jena,  1865-1871. 
Scheuchzer,  J.  J.     Helvetian    Stoicheiographia,    Orographia,    et    Oreographia. 

Zurich,  1 7 16. 
Scheuchzer,  J.  J.     Itinera  per  Helvetise  Alpinas  Regiones  facta  annis  1702-1711. 

Collected  edition.     4  vols.     Leyden,  1723. 
Schiller,  F.  von.     Wilhelm  Tell.      1804. 
Schlagintweil ,  A.  and  H.     Untersuchungen  iiber  die  physikalische  Geographie 

der  Alpen.     2  Series.     Leipzig,  1850  and  1854. 
Schott,  Albert.     Die  deutschen  Colonien  in  Piemont.     Stuttgart  and  Tubingen, 

1842. 
Sella,   V.,  and  Vallino,  D.     Monte  Rosa  e  Gressoney.     Biella,  1890. 
Sererhard,  N.     Einfalte  Delineation  aller  Gemeinden  gemeiner  dreien  Biinden  im 

Jahr  1742.     Coire,   1872. 
Simler,  Josias.    Vallesiae  Descriptio  et  de  Alpibus  Commentarius.     Zurich,  1574. 

Handy  Elzevir  edition,  Leyden,  1633. 
Simony,  F.     Das  Dachsteingebiet.     Vienna,  1889- 1896. 
Sinigaglia,  L.     Climbing  Reminiscences  of  the  Dolomites.     London,  1896. 
Smith,  Albert.     The  Story  of  Mont  Blanc.     London,  1853. 
Sonklar,  K.  von.     Die  Oetzthaler  Gebirgsgruppe,  mit  besonderer  Riicksicht  auf 

Orographic  und  Gletscherkunde.     Gotha,  i860. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  AND   MAPS   RELATING  TO  THE  ALPS.  cxlix 

Sonklar,  K.  von.     Die  Gebirgsgruppe  der  Hohen-Tauern.     Vienna,  1866. 
Sonklar,  K.  von.     Die  Zillerthaler  Alpen.     Gotha,  1874. 

'  Erganzungsheft '  no.  32  to  Petermann's  '  Mittheilungen.' 
Sowerby,/.     The  Forest  Cantons  of  Switzerland.     London,  1892. 
Sprecher,  Fortunatus  a.     Pallas  Rietica  armata  et  togata.     Basel,  1617. 

Also  Elzevir  edition,  Leyden,  1633. 
Stanyan,  Abraham.     An  Account  of  Switzerland.     Written  in  the  Year  17 14. 

London,  17 14. 
Stephen,  Leslie.     The  Playground  of  Europe.     London,  1 87 1. 

Later  editions  (with  some  changes),  1894  and  1899. 
Stubei :   Thai  und  Gebirg,  Land  und  Leute.     Leipzig,  189 1. 
Stitder,  Bernard.     Geschichte  der  physischen  Geographie  der  Schweiz  bis  181 5. 

Bern  and  Zurich,  1863. 
Stitder,  Gottlieb.     Topographische  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Alpengebirge.     Bern 

and  St.  Gallen,  1844. 
Studer,  Gottlieb.    Ueber  Eis  und  Schnee.     3  vols  with  supplement  (1883).    Bern, 
1869-1871. 

New  editions  of  vol.  i.  (1896),  vol.  ii.  (1898),  and  vol.  iii.  (1899.) 
Studer,   Gottlieb,    Ulrich,  M. ,  and    Weilenmann,  J.  J.     Berg-  und  Gletscher- 

Fahrten.     2  Series.     Zurich,  1859  and  1863. 
Stttder,  Julius.     Schweizer  Ortsnamen  :  ein   historisch-etymologischer  Versuch. 

Zurich,  1896. 
Slump/,/.     Gemeiner  loblicher  Eydgnosschaft  Stetten,  Landen,  und  Volckeren 
Chronicwirdiger  Thaatenbeschreybung.     Zurich,  1548. 
2nd  edition,  1586  ;  3rd  edition,  1606. 
Symonds,  J.  A.  and  Margaret.     Our  Life  in  the  Swiss  Highlands.     London  and 

Edinburgh,  1892. 
Tatarinoff,  E.     Die  Entwickelung  der  Probstei  Interlaken  im  xiii.  Jahrhundert. 

Schaffhausen,  1892. 
Theobald,  G.     Naturbilder  aus  den  Rhatischen  Alpen.     Coire,  i860. 

2nd  edition,  1862  ;  3rd  edition,  1893. 
Theobald,  G.     Das  Biindner  Oberland.     Coire,  186 1. 

Tissot,  Victor.     La  Suisse  Inconnue.     Paris,  1888.     English  translation,  1889. 
Tobler,  Ludwig.     Schweizerische  Volkslieder.     2  vols.     Frauenfeld,  1882-4. 
Tbppffer,  R.     Voyages  en  Zigzag.     2  Series.     Paris,  1844  and  1853. 
Jscheinen,  Moriz.     Walliser-Sagen.     Sion,  1872. 

Tschudi,  ALgidius.     De  prisca  ac  vera  Alpina  Rhaetia,  cum  coetero  Alpinarum 
gentium   tractu  descriptio.       Basel,    1538    (also  in  German).     2nd    edition, 
1560. 
Probably  the  first  published  treatise  exclusively  devoted  to  the  Alps. 
Tschudi,  AZgidius.     Gallia  Comata.     Constance,  1758. 

Published  long  after  the  author's  death  in  1572. 
Tucket t,  F.  F.     Hochalpenstudien.     2  vols.     Leipzig,  1873-74. 

Only  collected  edition  of  the  author's  Alpine  articles. 
Tuckett,  Miss  L.    How  we  spent  the  Summer  ;  or  a  Voyage  en  Zigzag.     London, 

1864.     4th  edition,  1871. 
Tuckett,  Miss  L.     Pictures  in  Tyrol  and  Elsewhere.     From  a  Family  Sketch- 

Book.     London,  1867.     2nd  edition,  1869. 
Tuckett,  Miss  L.     Zigzagging  amongst  Dolomites.     London,  187 1. 
Tiirst,  Conrad.     De  situ  Confcederatorum  descriptio,  1495-7. 

Latin  and  German  texts  printed  in  1884,  •*  Basel,  in  vol.  vi.  of  the 
'  Quellen  zur  Schweizer  Geschichte,'  together  with  a  reproduction  of  his 
map,  the  earliest  map  of  Switzerland  known  to  exist. 


Cl  INTRODUCTION. 

Tyndall,  John.     The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps.     London,  i860. 

Reprinted  in  1896. 
Tyndall,  John.     Mountaineering  in  186 1.     London,  1862. 
Tyndall,  John.     Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps.     London,  1871. 
Tyndall,  John,     New  Fragments.     London,  1892. 
Ulrich,  M.     Die  Seitenthaler  des  Wallis   und   der   Monte    Rosa  topographisch 

geschildert.     Zurich,  1850.     See  also  under  Studer,  G. 
Umlauft,   F.     Die   Alpen  :  Handbuch   der   gesammten   Alpenkunde.     Vienna, 
Pesth,  and  Leipzig,  1887. 
English  translation,  1889. 
Vacation  Tourists  and  Notes  of  Travel  in  i860.     London,  1861. 

Has  articles  by  J.  J.   Cowell  on  the  Mont  Iseran,  by  Leslie   Stephen   on 
the  Allalinhorn,  by  F.  V.  Hawkins  on  an  attempt  on  the  Matterhorn, 
and  by  J.  Tyndall  on  the  Lauithor. 
Vaccarone,  L.     Le  Pertuis  du  Viso.     Turin,  1881. 
Vaccarone,    L.      Le   Vie   delle  Alpi    Occidentali    negli   antichi   tempi.     Turin, 

1884. 
Vaccarone,  L.     Statistica  delle  Prime   Ascensioni  nelle   Alpi  Occidentali.     3rd 
and  best  edition.     Turin,  1890. 
Does  not  include  the  summits  of  the  Pelvoux  Group. 
Veneon,  Jean  (i.e.  Perrin,  Felix).     In  Memoriam  Tschingel.     Grenoble,  1892. 
Venetz,  L.     Memoire  sur  les  Variations  de  la  Temperature  dans  les  Alpes  de  la 
Suisse. 
Most  valuable  essay,  containing  much  information  as  to  old  glacier  passes. 
It  appeared  at  Zurich  in  1833  in  vol.  i.   part  ii.  of  the  '  Denkschriften 
der  allgemeinen  Schweizerischen  Gesellschaft  fiir  die  gesammten  Natur- 
wissenschaften. ' 
Vernaleken,    Th.      Alpensagen :    Volksiiberlieferungen    aus    der   Schweiz,    aus 
Vorarlberg,    Karnten,    Steiermark,    Salzburg,    Ober-   und   Niederosterreich. 
Vienna,  1858. 
Fischer,  W.     Die  Sage  von  der  Befreiung  der  Waldstatte  nach  ihrer  allmaligen 

Ausbildung.     Leipzig,  1867. 
Wagner,  J.  J.     Historia  Naturalis  Helvetian  Curiosa.     Zurich,  1680. 
Wagner,  R.,  and  Salis,  L.  R.  von.     Rechtsquellen  des  Cantons  Graubiinden. 

4  parts.     Basel,  1 887-1892. 
Weilenmann,  J.  J.     Aus  der  Firn  en  welt.     3  vols.     Leipzig,  1872-7. 
Welden,   L.  von.     Der  Monte  Rosa :  eine  topographische  und  naturhistorische 
Skizze,  nebst  einem  Anhange  der  von  Herrn  Zumstein  gemachten  Reisen  zur 
Ersteigung  seiner  Gipfel.     Vienna,  1824. 
Whymper,  E.     Scrambles  amongst  the  Alps  in   the  Years    1860-9.     London, 
1871. 

2nd  edition,  1871  ;  3rd  edition  (abridged),  1880;  4th  and  definitive  edition, 
1893.     German  translation,  Brunswick,  1872  (2nd  edition,  1892)  ;  French 
translation,  Paris,  1873. 
Wills,  Sir  Alfred.     Wanderings  among  the  High  Alps.     London,  1856. 

2nd  edition,  1858. 
Wills,  Sir  Alfred.     '  The  Eagle's  Nest '  in  the  Valley  of  Sixt :  a  Summer  Home 
among  the   Alps ;    together   with  some  Excursions  among   the  Great  Alps. 
London,  i860. 
Wilson,    Claude.       Mountaineering.       London,    1893.       In  the  'All-England' 

Series. 
Windham,  W.,  and  A/artel,  P.     An  Account  of  the  Glacieres  or  Ice  Alps  in 
Savoy.     In  two    letters — one  from   an  English   gentleman  to   his  friend   at 


LIST  OF   BOOKS  AND   MAPS   RELATING  TO  THE  ALPS.  cli 

Geneva  ;  the  other  from  Peter  Martel,  engineer,  to  the  said  English  gentleman. 
London,  1744. 
The  original  French  text  of  both  letters,  written  in  1741-2,  was  printed  by 
T.  Dufour  in  the  *  Echo  des  Alpes'  for  1879. 
Wirth,  Max,     Allgemeine  Beschreibung  und  Statistik  der  Schweiz.     2  vols,  in 

6  parts.     Zurich,  1870-3. 
Wundt,  Th.     Die  Besteigung  des  Cimone  della  Pala.     Stuttgart,  1892. 
IVundt,  Th.     Wanderungen  in  den  Ampezzaner  Dolomiten.     Berlin,  1893. 
Wundty  Th.     Wanderbilder  aus  den  Dolomiten.     Berlin,  1894. 
IVundt,  Th.     Das  Matterhorn  und  seine  Geschichte.     Berlin,  1896. 
Wundt,  Th.     Die  Jungfrau  und  das  Berner  Oberland.     Berlin,  1897. 
WysSy  F.  von.     Abhandlungen   zur  Geschichte  des  schweizerischen  offentlichen 
Rechts.     Zurich,  1892. 
Contains   a   remarkable   history   of  Swiss    *  communes'   and   of  the    'free 
peasants '  of  Eastern  Switzerland  in  the  late  Middle  Ages. 
Wyss,J.  jR.     Idyllen,  Volkssagen,  Legenden,  und  Erzahlungen  aus  der  Schweiz. 

2  Series.     Bern  and  Leipzig,  181 5  and  1822. 
Wyss,  /.  A\     Reise  in  das  Berner  Oberland.     In  2  parts  with   '  Hand  Atlas. ' 
Bern,  181 7. 
French  edition  published  at  the  same  time. 
Wyss,  J.   R.,   and  Httber,   Ferd.     Sammlung  von   Schweizer-Kuhreihen.     Mit 

Melodien  und  alten  Volksliedem.     4th  and  best  edition.     Bern,  1826. 
Zingerle,  I.   V.     Sagen,  Marchen,  und  Gebrauche  aus  Tirol.     Innsbruck,  1859. 
Zingerle,  I.   V. ,  and  Inama-Sternegg,  K.  Th.  von.     Die  tirolischen  Weisthumer. 

4  vols.     Vienna,  1 87  5- 1 888. 
Zschokke,  H.     Reise  auf  die  Eisgebirge  des  Kantons  Bern  und  Ersteigung  ihrer 
hochsten  Gipfel  im  Sommer  1812.     Aarau,  181 3. 
This  pamphlet,  compiled  from  information  given  by  the  Meyers,  should  be 
carefully  compared   with  R.    Meyer's  original   narrative,  printed   in   the 
*  Alpenrosen  '  for  1852  (issued  at  Aarau  and  Thun). 
Zsigmondy,  Emit.     Die  Gefahren  der  Alpen.     Leipzig,  1885. 

French  translation,  Neuchatel,  1886. 
Zsigmondy,  Emil.     Im  Hochgebirge.     Leipzig,  1889. 


2.  Maps. 
A.  Austrian  Alps. 

Government  Maps. — The  best  map  is  the  '  Specialkarte  der  osterreichisch- 
ungarischen  Monarchic'  In  all  763  sheets.  Scale  75^.  Surveyed  1869- 
1885  (by  1874  most  of  the  Alpine  regions  complete) ;  published  1874-1888, 
while  a  later  revised  edition  ('  Reambulirung ')  is  also  appearing. 

Special  Maps. — The  *  k.u.k.  Militar-geographischeslnstitut  'has  also  issued  11 
sheets  of  *  Topographische  Detailkarten.'  Sheet  5  is  devoted  to  the 
Ampezzo  and  Sexten  Dolomites  ;  sheet  7,  to  the  Langkofel  and  Rosengarten 
groups,  or  the  N.  W.  Dolomites  ;  sheet  8,  to  the  Stubai  Alps  ;  sheet  9,  to 
those  of  the  Oetzthal  ;  sheet  10,  to  the  Pala  group  ;  and  sheet  11,  to  the 
Adamello,  Presanella,  and  Brenta  districts,  all  these  sheets  being  on  a  scale 

Another  set  of  district  maps  is  that  issued  by  the  German  and  Austrian 
Alpine  Club  on  a  scale  of  35^  ;  these  now  include  all  the  chief  districts  of 
the  Austrian  Alps,  save  the  Dolomites  (in  preparation),  the  4  sheets  repre- 


Clii  INTRODUCTION. 

senting  the  Oetzthal  and  Stubai  regions  being  particularly  clear  and 
beautiful,  while  the  Ortler  map  is  perhaps  the  most  useful  to  English 
travellers. 

B.  French  Alps. 

i.  Government  Maps. — Carte  de  l'Etat  Major.  258  sheets  (1833-1876).  Scale, 
soJoo-  (The  best  edition  is  that  lithographed,  and  kept  up  to  date ;  it  is 
known  as  the  'Type  1889.') 

Carte  de  la  Frontiere  des  Alpes  (in  3  colours).     72  sheets,     (c.  1875.) 

Scale,  8o5oo-     No  longer  sold  to  the  public. 
Carte  du  Service  Vicinal. 

very  untrustworthy  as  to  names  and  heights, 
ii.  Special  Maps. — See  vol.   i.    of  the  new  edition  of  the   '  Alpine  Guide,'  pp. 
xxxvii-xxxix. 

C.   Italian  Alps. 

i.  Government  Maps. — Carta  Topografica  del  Regno  d'  Italia.  277  sheets.  Scale, 
iooooo-  Surveyed  1 879- 1 891  ;  published  (so  far  as  regards  the  Alpine 
regions)  1884- 1897. 

,    Tavolette  rilevate  per  la  construzione  della  Carta  del  Regno  d'  Italia. 

(Surveyed  1880-4,  published  1882-1892.)    Scale,  g^fe.    Accurate,  but 

very  illegible.     No  longer  sold  to  the  public,  as  is  no  doubt  also  the  case 

with  the  clearer  ^  edition  (surveyed  1884- 1892). 

ii.  Special  Maps.  Set  the  new  edition  of  vol.  i.  of  the   'Alpine  Guide,'  pp. 

xxxvii-xxxviii. 

D.   Swiss  Alps. 

A  very  complete  list  (extending  to  over  700  pages)  of  all  Swiss  Maps  of  any 
kind  (general  or  special),  wherever  they  appeared,  was  published  (for  the  Federal 
Topographical  Bureau)  by  Professor  Graf,  at  Bern,  in  1896,  under  the  general 
title  of  '  Literatur  der  Landesvermessung. ' 

i.  Government  Maps. — The  Dufour  Map  (25  sheets,  1845-1864,  scale  1001000 — its 
history  was  published  at  Bern  in  1896)  has  now  been  superseded  by  the 
publication,  after  careful  revision,  of  the  original  large  scale  survey  (50^00  for 
the  mountain  districts,  25000  f°r  tne  plains) ;  this  is  known  as  the  *  Topogra- 
phischer  Atlas  der  Schweiz,'  or  Siegfried  Atlas,  and  extends  to  589  sheets, 
in  course  of  issue  (all  the  mountain  sheets  are  now  published)  since  1870. 
It  is  extremely  clear,  and  most  accurate,  being  undoubtedly  the  most 
splendid  representation  of  a  mountain  land  ever  yet  published. 

The  best  small-scale  map  (unofficial)  of  the  Swiss  Alps  is  that  issued  in 
1897  by  L.  Ravenstein,  of  Frankfort  (2  sheets  on  a  scale  of  asSooo)- 
ii.  Special  Maps. — The  Siegfried  map  quite  does  away  in  Switzerland  with  the 
need  for  large-scale  Special  Maps,  especially  as  the  Federal  Topographical 
Bureau  issues  combinations  of  sheets  or  parts  of  sheets,  so  as  to  form  most 
convenient  District  Maps.  See  the  new  edition  of  vol.  i.  of  the  '  Alpine 
Guide,'  p.  xxxix,  and  also  the  notes  on  maps  in  the  '  Preliminary  Notes'  of 
the  new  edition  of  vol.  ii.  (in  preparation)  of  the  same  work. 


cliii 


APPENDIX   b. 

A   GLOSSARY    OF   ALPINE   TERMS. 

[It  is  to  be  hoped  that  one  day  some  well  qualified  person  will  take  in  hand  the 
compilation  of  a  complete  Alpine  Glossary,  for  which  there  are  already  abundant 
printed  materials  (sometimes  hidden  carefully  away  in  local  pamphlets  or  periodi- 
cals), that  may  be  supplemented  to  almost  any  extent  by  personal  investigation 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps.  The  present  Glossary  aims  only  at  including  the 
principal  technical  and  patois  terms — slang  excluded — that  may  puzzle  an  English 
traveller  or  reader.  Many  of  the  examples  given  can  be  found  in  the  new  edition 
of  vol.  i.  of  the  *  Alpine  Guide,'  others  in  the  later  volumes  of  that  work.] 

Aigue.     A  stream  {aqua). 

Allmend.     Land   owned   in   common,  whether  arable,  meadow,    pasture,    or 

forest. 
Aim.     The  Tyrolese  term  for  an  '  alp '  or  mountain  pasture.     See  Art.  X.  3. 
Alp.     A  mountain  pasture  used  in  summer.     See  Art.  X.  3. 
Alpbuch.     The   official   register  in  which  everything  relating  to  a  particular 

'alp '  is  entered. 
Alpenhorn.     A  long  curved  horn  of  wood,  originally  used  by  the  •  Alpler,'  but 

now  mainly  employed  to  amuse  tourists. 
Alpenschatzung-.     The  estimate  of  the  number  of  cows  that  can  be  supported 

on  an  'alp.'     See  Stoss. 
Alpenstock.     The  long  wooden  pole  used  by  Alpine  travellers  and  by  hunters 

in  the  Tyrol,  though  of  recent  years  on  high  mountains  it  has  been  superseded 

by  the  ice-axe. 
Alpfanrt.     The  annual  journey  of  the  cows  up  to  the  '  alp  '  in  June. 
Alpler.     A  man  employed  on  an  '  alp '  during  the  summer. 
Amait  (Italian).     A  small  plain  in  the  mountains,  e.g.  Col  de  PAmait  di  Viso. 
Amont,  d\     The  '  upper  '  pastures  or  huts  as  opposed  to  those  '  d'aval.' 
Anken.     Butter.  n 

Arete.     A  rock  or  snow  ridge,  generally  a  more  or  less  sharp  ridge. 
Avalanche.     Snow  or  ice  which  slides  or  falls  by  its  own  weight  towards  the 

valley  ('ad  vallem  ').     See  F  Alpine  Journal,'  vol.  v.  p.  349. 
Baisse,  Bassa,  and  Basse.     A  local  term  in  the  French  and  Italian  Alps  for  a 

low  pass,  e.g.  Baisse  de  St.  Veran,  Bassa  di  Dittos,  Basse  du  ( lerbier. 
Baita.     A  hut   (of  wood  or  stones)  on  an   'alp,'  built  under  the  shelter  of  a 

boulder. 
Balm  and  Balme.     A  cave. 
Bannwald.     A  forest  which   is  put  under   '  l>ann,'  i.e.  where  no  trees  can  be 

felled  under  very  severe  penalties,  often  because  the  forest  shelters  a  village 

from  avalanches  ;  hence  applied  to  the  wildest  portions  of  a  forest. 
Banz  (Bernese  Oberland).      I'atois  word  for  B  sheep. 
Baraoca,  Baraccone,  and  Baraque.     Small  stone  hut. 
Bee,  Becca,  Becco.     A  pointed  summit,  like  the  beak  of  a  bird. 
Belsass.     Strictly  speaking  a  Swiss  who  lives  in  a   'commune'  other  than  his 

own  ;  loosely  applied  to  all  such  dwellers,  whether  Swiss  or  f< 

Art.  X.  2. 


Cliv  INTRODUCTION. 

Bergerie  (Viso  and  Vaudois  Valleys).     A  local  term  strictly  meaning  a  sheep 

chalet  on  a  mountain  pasture  ;  but  also  more  generally  applied  to  any  cheese 

chalet. 
Bergfall  and  Bergrutsch.     A  landslip. 
Bergrecht.     See  Kuhrecht. 
Bergschrund.   A  particular  kind  of  crevasse — namely,  that  which  occurs  where 

the  steep  upper  neve  or  icy  slope  of  a  peak  touches  the  more  level  ice  or  snow- 
field  at  its  foot. 
Bise.     A  cold  wind,  generally  blowing  from  the  N. 
Blatten.     Smooth  rock  slabs  lying  at  a  great  incline. 
Bocca  and  Bocchetta  (Italian).     A  narrow  'mouth'  or  pass,  e.g.  Bocca  di 

Brenta. 
Branta.     A  wooden  barrel-shaped  vessel    (carried   on  a  man's  back)  used  in 

Switzerland  for  bringing  the  milk  home  from  the  mountain  pastures  or  from 

the  stable  below  ;  a  smaller  vessel  of  the  same  kind  is  called  a  *  Brantli. '     Cf. 

1  Brenta,'  used  in  the  Sarca  valley  (Adamello  district)   for  a  shallow  vessel 

employed  for  soup,  and  by  analogy  for  a  stagnant  tarn  in  a  dolomite  glen 

(Freshfield's  'Italian  Alps,'  p.  378). 
Brec  or  Brie  (Viso  and  Vaudois  Valleys  district).     A  rock  peak  especially  if 

fissured  and  pointed,  e.g.  Brec  de  Chambeyron,  Brie  Bouchet. 
Breche.     A  narrow  or  well  defined  gap  in  a  rock  ridge. 
Buhl.     A  hillock. 
Burger gemeinde.     A  *  commune '  composed  solely  of  the  burghers,  to   the 

exclusion  of  mere  '  residents,'  &c.     See  Art.  X.  2. 
Caire  (Maritime  Alps).     A  peak. 

Canale  (Venetian  Alps).     A  valley,  generally  a  main  valley. 
Casera.     A  hut  on  a  mountain  pasture,  especially  the  hut  wherein  the  cheeses 

are  stored. 
Casse.     A  slope  covered  with  small  stones,  the  result  of  the  wearing  away  or 

weathering  of  the  rocks  above,  e.g.  Casse  des  Oules ;  also  a  saucepan,  or  a 

hollow  in  the  earth  which  holds  water  like  a  saucepan,  e.g.  Grande  Casse. 
Ceng-ia  or  Sengia.     A  narrow  ledge  on  a  rock  wall.     See  Vire. 
Chalanche  or  Cialancia.     A  bare  avalanche-swept  slope  of  stones. 
Chalet.     A  hut  on  the  mountain  pastures,  especially  one   used   for  milk  and 

cheese  purposes  in  summer  ;  by  extension,  any  dwelling-house  in  the  valley 

below.     The  word  should  have  no  accent. 
Chiot.     A  small  rocky  plain,  and  any  hut  upon  it. 
Cima,  Cime,  or  Cimon.     A  mountain  peak,  e.g.   Cima  Tosa,  Cime  du  Vallon, 

Cimon  della  Pala. 
Clapier    or   Clappey.     A  slope  of  stones  fallen  from   above,  or  due  to  the 

weathering  of  the  rocks  above,  i.e.  screes  (Cumberland  term). 
Clot.     A  small  plain  on  a  mountain-side,  e.g.  Clot  des  Cavales. 
Cluse.     A  narrow  rocky  defile. 
Col  or  Colle,     Generally  a  pass  {e.g.    Col  du  Geant)  ;  in  certain  parts  of  the 

Italian  Alps  a  hill  (e.g.  Col  Vicentino).     Possibly  both  meanings  come  from 

1  collis,'  a  hillock  as  opposed  to  a  *  mons '  or  mountain  ;  but  perhaps  '  Col ' 

in  the  sense  of  a  pass  comes  from  '  collum,'  a  neck. 
Collerin.     A  small  gully  or  '  couloir,'  e.g.  Col  du  Collerin. 
Colonnes  coiffees.     Earth  pillars  (see  this  word),  as  they  are  capped  by  a  great 

boulder. 
Colour  and  Colouret.     A  gully  or  '  couloir,'  and  a  small  gully,   e.g.   Col  del 

Colour  del  Porco,  and  the  two  Colourets  on  the  Col  de  la  Galise. 
Combe.    A  glen,  especially  a  side  glen,  and  a  narrow  glen,  e.g.  Combe  de  Malaval. 
Commune.     The  association  (based  originally  on  common  ownership  of  land, 


A  GLOSSARY  OF  ALPINE  TERMS.  civ 

and  later  on  political  considerations)  of  the  inhabitants  in  a  village,  or  some 

particular  bit  of  a  large  valley,  or  in  a  small  valley. 
Conca.     A  high  mountain  hollow  or  basin.     See  Kar. 

Corniche.      Used  in  two  senses:  (i)  a  narrow  ledge  of  rock;  (2)  an   over- 
hanging crest  of  snow  on  a  ridge. 
Couloir.     A  steep  gully  in  the  mountain-side;  it  is  often  filled  with  ice,  snow, 

or  stones. 
Coupe  (Cogne).     A  narrow  gap  or  '  cut '  in  a  ridge. 
Crampons.     An  iron  frame  fastened  underneath  the  boot  by  leather  straps,  and 

furnished  with  several  sharp  points.     They  are  much  used  in  the  Eastern  Alps, 

in  order  to  avoid  step-cutting  on  slopes  of  hard  snow,  or  even  ice,  but  are 

useless  on  rocks. 
Crevasse.     A  crack  or  rent  in  a  glacier,  due  to  the  straining  of  the  ice  on  its 

downward  flow. 
Croda  (Dolomites).     Rock  ;  *  croda  morta'  is  'disaggregated  rock,  loosened  by 

weathering  '  (Ball's  '  Eastern  Alps,'  p.  526). 
Crot.     A  deep  mountain  hollow,  e.g.  Crot  del  Ciaussine. 
Crozzon.     A  very  steep  and  massive  rock  peak,  e.g.  Crozzon  di  Brenta. 
Dirt  Bands.     Transverse  curved  bands  of  fine  mud  or  debris,  which  mark  the 

line  of  depression   (into  which  they  have  been  washed  by  little  rills)  between 

the  ridges  which  in  an  icefall  run  between  the  crevasses,  but  sink,  through 

the  action  of  the  sun,  when  the  crevasses  are  closed  up  at  the  base  of  the  icefall. 
Dirt  Cones.     Hillocks  of  ice  on  a  glacier,  which  have  been  protected  from  the 

action  of  the  sun  by  the  thick  layer  of  sand,  &c,  on  them,  and  which  therefore 

form  miniature  mountains. 
Draye  (Cottian  Alps).     A  small  cattle  track  along  the    mountain -side,  formed 

originally  by  the  dragging  or  sliding  of  a  log  of  wood  along  the  slope. 
Earth  pillars.   Pillars  of  earth,  standing  out  from  the  mountain-side,  each  capped 

by  a  great  boulder  which  has  prevented  the  earth  of  which  they  are  composed 

from  being  weathered  away  by  rain,  is.c. 
Egg-.     A  hillock.     The  word  *  Egg '  has  nothing  to  do  with  '  Eck. ' 
Eglise.     The  church  hamlet  of  a  '  commune.' 
Emd.     The  second  crop  of  grass,  or  '  aftermath. ' 
Eng-e.     A  narrow  passage  along  a  rock  wall  or  slope,  e.g.  the  two  '  Enges  '  near 

Grindelwald. 
Erratic  blocks.     Boulders  of  one  kind  of  stone  which  are  now  found  stranded  on 

rock  of  a  different  formation,  having  been  carried  thither  by  an  ancient  glacier 

and  left  there  (sometimes  very  delicately  poised)  when  the  ice  disappeared. 

When  they  are  very  delicately  poised   they  are  also  called  '  blocs  perches  ' 

(see  below). 
Etret  and  Etroit.     A  narrow  defile  in  a  valley. 
Fenetre  and  Finestra.     A  narrow  gap  or  f  window '  in  a  mountain  ridge,  e.g. 

Fenetre  de  Saleinaz. 
Ferner.     The  Tyrolese  term  for  glaciers. 
Firn.     The  accumulation  of  hard  snow  which  has  descended  from  the  steep  upper 

mountain  slopes,  and  which  on  its  further  downward  course  will  be  consolidated 

by  pressure  into  ice,  and   so  form  a  ■  glacier,'  i.e.   the  raw  materials  of  a 

glacier,  e.g.  the  Jungfraufirn. 
First  (E.  Switzerland).     A  ridge. 

Fluh.     A  steep  or  precipitous  rock  cliff,  especially  if  clean  cut. 
Fohn.     A  stormy  hot  and  dry  wind  which  rushes  over  the  Alps  from  S.  t«  >  X. ,  not 

probably  due  to  the  heated  desert  of  the  Sahara,  but  to  the  suction  of  thu 

from  the  valleys  on  the  N.  slopes  of  the  Alps,  so  that  masses  of  air  come  from 

the  S.  to  restore  the  equilibrium.     See  *  Alpine  Journal,'  vol.  xiii.  p.  274. 


clvi  INTRODUCTION. 

Forca,  Forcella,  Forclietta,  Forclaz,  Furka,  &c.   A  fork -shaped  depression 

in  a  mountain  ridge. 
Frazione  (Italian).     One  of  the  hamlets  that  make  up  a  '  commune.' 
Fruitier.     A  cheesemaker.     See  Senn. 
Gaden.     A  room. 

Gand.     Any  kind  of  heap  of  stones  or  land  covered  with  such. 
Gandeck  or  Gandegg.     A  lateral  moraine. 

Gaumer.  The  man  or  lad  who  actually  drives  out  and  guards  the  cows  on  an  'alp.' 
Gemeinde.     See  Commune  and  Art.  X.  2. 
Genossame.     A  guild  or  corporation  of  persons  which  owns  certain  lands  in 

common,  and  which  does  not  include  all  members  of  the  Commune ;  also  the 

rights  of  a  member  of  such  a  corporation. 
Gerechtig-keit.  The  right  (generally  '  real  '—see  Art.   X.  3)  of  user  over  lands 

owned  in  common. 
Geroll.     Slope  of  loose  small  stones,  or  *  screes. ' 
Gtaicet  (Graian  Alps).     A  deep-cut  pass  over  a  lateral  ridge,  e.g.  Ghicet  d'Ala. 

Cf.  '  wicket.' 
Gias.     Properly  the  enclosed  space  or  *  corral  'on  an  '  alp  '  within  which  the 

cattle  (in  the  S.  valleys  of  the  Maritime  Alps  only  goats  and  sheep)  are  penned 

at  night  or  for  milking  purposes  ;  also  the  huts  near  by. 
Giogo.     See  Joch. 
Glacier  Remanie.     A  second  and  lower  glacier  {e.g.   the  Schwarzwald  glacier 

at  the   N.   foot  of  the  Wetterhorn),  formed  by  the  breaking  away  of  frag- 
ments from  a  glacier  above,  these  fragments  being  then  pressed  together,  and 

thus  reforming  a  glacier. 
Glacier  Table.     A  flat  slab  of  rock  lifted  up  on  a  pillar  of  ice  produced  by  the 

non-melting  of  the  ice,  which  is  thus  protected  from  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays. 

The  table  generally  leans  towards  the  S. ,  as  the  sun  melts  the  ice  on  that  side 

more  quickly  than  on  the  N.  side. 
Glaciere.     Originally  this  word  meant  the  '  Firn  '  or  *  neve '  as  opposed  to  the 

ice  of  a  glacier  ;  now  it  is  generally  confined  to  caves  with  masses  of  ice  which 

never  melt  {e.g.  the  Schafloch,  in  the  Justisthal,  above  the  Lake  of  Thun). 
Glissade*     Sliding  down  a  snow  slope,  voluntarily  or  involuntarily. 
Gola.     A  very  narrow  ravine. 
Graben.     A  ravine  torn  in  the  mountain-side. 

Grund.    The  level  bit  of  a  valley  near  the  stream,  as  opposed  to  the  slopes  above. 
Guffer.     A  heap  of  gravel,  particularly  when  it  forms  a  central  moraine. 
Gut  sen,     A  hillock. 

Guxe.     A  wild  storm  (blizzard  or  '  tourmente '  )  in  the  mountains. 
Gwachte.     A  snow  drift ;  also  an  overhanging  crest  of  snow. 
Hanging-  Glacier.     A  glacier  lying  on  a  very  steep  slope,  so  that  the  spectator 

wonders  how  it  can  '  hang '  there. 
Heisse  Platte.     An  exposed  rock  face  in  an  icefall,  over  which  fragments  of  ice, 

&c. ,  frequently  fall,  e.g.  that  above  the  Grindelwald  Eismeer. 
Hlntersass.     A  non-Swiss   person  living  in  a  '  Commune '  where  he  has  no 

rights  either  as  Swiss,  Cantonal,  or  Communal  burgher. 
Hof.     A  homestead  and  its  meadows,  enclosed  within  a  ring  fence. 
Hubel.     A  hillock. 
Icefall.     The  dislocation  of  a  glacier  when  descending  over  steep  rocks  from  a 

higher  to  a  lower  level ;  the  ice  is  then  broken  up  into  chasms  and  pinnacles, 

which  are  consolidated  into  one  mass  again,  when  the  lower  level  is  reached. 
Tas.     The  French  patois  form  of  '  Gias, '  e.g.  Jas  du  Seigneur. 
Joch.     A  broad  pass,  or  'yoke'  (the  Italian  '  giogo  '),  e.g.  Domjoch. 
Todeln.     Shouting  in  a  high  falsetto  in  rhythm  but  without  uttering  any  words. 


A  GLOSSARY  OF  ALPINE  TERMS.  clvii 

Xar.  The  Tyrolese  term  originally  for  a  bowl  or  cup ;  and  by  analogy  for  a 
mountain  hollow  or  basin,  open  on  one  side,  a  *  Kessei  '  being  enclosed  on 
all  sides.    See  the  '  Zeitschrift '  of  the  German  Alpine  Club,  vol.  i.  pp.  305-9. 

Xarrenfeld.  A  limestone  plateau,  with  many  fissures  through  which  the  water 
drains  away. 

Kees.  A  Tyrolese  term  for  a  glacier  ;  it  is  said  to  come  from  an  old  German 
word,  meaning  *  frost '  ('  Jahrbuch  '  of  the  Austrian  Alpine  Club,  vol.  ii.  p.  402). 

Klus.     See  Cluse. 

Krinne.     A  deep  cut  in  a  mountain  ridge,  e.g.  the  two  near  Grindelwald. 

Xuhrecht.  The  right  of  a  man  to  pasture  one  cow  on  the  'alp'  in  summer; 
also  used  in  the  sense  of  '  Stoss. ' 

later.  One  of  the  divisions  into  which  an  '  alp '  is  divided  horizontally,  so  that 
the  cows  may  shift  their  quarters  in  order  to  get  fresh  grass,  e.g.  Ober  Lager, 
Mittel  Lager,  Unter  Lager. 

Ii.ipiaz.     See  Karrenfeld. 

Lau  or  Laus.     A  lake.     Lauzet,  a  small  lake. 

LauiDe.     An  avalanche.     See  *  Alpine  Journal,' vol.  v.  pp.  346-9. 

Lauze.     Slate,  e.g.  Col  de  la  Lauze. 

lei  or  Lex.     A  meadow  enclosed  by  hills,  e.g.  Lex  Blanche  (Allee  Blanche). 

Xiimmi  (Gadmenthal).     A  pass,  e.g.  Triftlimmi. 

Lombarda.     The  wind  which  blows  over  the  Mont  Cenis  from  Lombardy. 

Xiiicke.     A  gap  or  pass  in  a  mountain  ridge,  e.g.  Gamchiliicke. 

Maiensass.     The  pastures  used  in  spring  before  the  cows  go  up  to  the  'alp.' 

Malta.     A  small  mountain  plain.     See  Amait. 

Malg-a.     A  cheese  and  milk  hut. 

Mandra.  A  herd  of  cattle;  hence  Mandron  and  Margheria,  the  huts 
erected  for  their  use. 

'  Marmites  des  Geants.'     See  Potholes. 

Massif.     A  mountain  '  mass,'  or  group. 

Mayens  and  Monti.  See  Maiensass.  '  Mayens  '  seems  to  be  also  used  in 
the  sense  of  '  Muanda.' 

Montagne.     Term  often  used  in  the  French  Alps  for  '  alp,' or  mountain  pasture. 

Moos.     A  swamp. 

Moraine.  The  stones  and  rocks  that  fall  from  the  mountain-sides  on  to  a 
glacier,  and  are  often  raised  above  its  level,  as  the  sun  protects  the  ridge  of 
ice  beneath  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  When  two  glaciers  meet  their 
lateral  moraines  unite  to  form  a  medial  or  central  moraine ;  the  stones  un- 
loaded at  the  snout  of  a  glacier  are  called  a  terminal  moraine,  and  those 
between  a  glacier  and  its  rock  bed  are  a  ground  moraine. 

Motte.     Clods  of  peat  or  turf. 

Moulin.  The  funnel-shaped  opening  or  shaft  excavated  (where  at  first  there 
was  but  a  crack)  by  the  running  streams  on  the  surface  of  a  glacier,  which 
thus  pierce  the  ice,  and  flow  over  the  rock  bed  on  which  it  rests.  Hence  the 
name  '  Glacier  Mills.' 

Mourre.     A  mountain  of  which  the  summit  resembles  a  '  nose,'  e.g.  le  M 
id  (Dauphine  Alps). 

Moutonnees,  Roches.  Rocks  polished  into  smooth  rounded  masses  (like  the 
backs  of  sheep)  by  the  action  of  a  glacier  moving  nbovc  them. 

Muanda  and  Muande.  One  of  the  sets  of  huts  on  an  'alp'  from  which  th« 
cows  *  change  '  or  shift  to  another. 

Want.     A  mountain  torrent,  e.g.  the  Bon  Nant. 

Neve.     See  Pirn. 

Wledergelassener.  A  'settler'  in  a  €  commune '  wherein  lie  h;is  no  rights. 
See  Beisass  and  Hlntersass. 


Clviii  ■  INTRODUCTION. 

Orrido.     A  wild  and  narrow  gorge. 

Ouille  (Maurienne).     Patois  form  of  *  Aiguille,'  e.g.  Ouille  de  l'Arberon. 

Oule.     A  hollow  in  the  ground  like  a  kettle,  e.g.  Casse  des  Oules. 

Pala  (Dolomites).  A  mountain  peak,  e.g.  Cimon  della  Pala.  The  derivation 
of  the  word  is  contested. 

Paravas,  Pelvas,  Pelvo,  or  Pelvoux.  A  mountain,  especially  if  rounded  at 
the  summit. 

Parei.     Patois  form  of  '  paroi '  (wall),  e.g.  Granta  Parei. 

Pas.  Name  sometimes  given  to  a  low  pass  {e.g.  Pas  du  Bceuf),  or  to  a  difficult 
bit  on  a  path  (e.g.  Pas  d'Encel). 

Perches,  Blocs.  Erratic  blocks  (see  above)  which  are  delicately  poised  on  a 
mountain-side. 

Pertuis.  A  tunnel  through  the  rocks,  e.g.  the  Pertuis  du  Viso  or  tunnel  under 
the  Col  de  la  Traversette. 

Peyron.     A  huge  boulder. 

Picket.     Ice  axe. 

Pieve  (Italian).  The  church  hamlet,  where  is  the  parish  church  ('ecclesia 
plebana '),  e.g.  Pieve  di  Ledro. 

Plolet.     Ice  axe. 

PIz  (E.  Switzerland).     A  mountain  peak,  e.g.  Piz  Bernina. 

Plan.     A  small  plain  or  level  shelf  on  a  mountain-side,  e.g.  Plan  des  Dames. 

Flatten.     See  Blatten. 

Potholes.  In  the  bed  of  a  mountain  torrent,  or  at  the  bottom  of  a  glacier 
'  moulin,'  a  stone  is  whirled  round  and  round  by  the  stream,  and  so  scours  out 
a  hollow  or  *  pothole.'  The  holes  are  sometimes  called  '  marmites  des  geants,' 
e.g.  in  the  Gletschergarten  at  Lucerne. 

Primesti.     The  Ticino  word  for  '  Maiensassen,'  which  see. 

Puy.     An  isolated  eminence  on  a  side  ridge. 

Ramasse.  A  wooden  sledge  (sometimes  with  a  rough  seat  or  chair  on  it)  used 
formerly  on  the  descent  from  the  Mont  Cenis  to  Lanslebourg  (and  now  at 
Allevard — see  the  'Alpine  Guide,'  vol.  i.  p.  128  of  the  1898  edition),  by 
which  travellers  and  their  luggage,  as  well  as  wood,  &c. ,  are  swiftly  conveyed 
down  the  steep  mountain-side  to  the  village  below.  See  a  seventeenth-century 
description  in  the  *  Rivista  Mensile '  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club,  vol.  iv.  p.  52. 
Sledges  of  this  kind('  Holzschlitten ')  are  still  used  in  winter  at  Grindelwald 
for  bringing  down  wood  from  the  forests  ;  and  have  been  taken  (for  the 
convenience  of  ladies)  in  winter  over  the  Monchjoch  and  the  Strahlegg. 

Rechtsame.  The  right  of  user  (generally  'real')  on  the  'Allmend.'  See 
Art.  X.  3. 

Red  Snow.  This  phenomenon  (especially  frequent  in  early  summer)  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  minute  plant,  one  of  a  group  of  freshwater  alga,  and  now 
known  as  '  Chlamydococcus  nivalis  ; '  it  is  pink  in  the  state  of  germination, 
but  later  becomes  deep  crimson. 

Rimaye.  A  bergschrund.  Desor  (i.  p.  333)  in  1844  proposed  to  give  this 
meaning  to  the  word,  which  in  the  '  Suisse  Romande '  signifies  a  great 
crevasse.  Littre  says  that  it  is  a  Savoyard  word,  coming  from  the  Low  Latin 
'rima'  ('fente '  -  '  rima'  is  used  in  this  sense  by  Simler  in  I574)>  and  this 
from  'ringor,'  meaning  's'ouvrir.' 

Rinne  and  Runse.  A  narrow  gully  down  which  water  trickles,  or  small  stones 
fall,  e.g.  the  Schneerunse  on  the  Todi. 

Roesa,  Roise,  or  Ruise.  A  word  which  in  the  Aostan  patois  signifies  a 
*  glacier  : '  it  is  the  true  explanation  of  the  names  Monte  Rosa,  Roisebanque, 
and  Reuse  d'Arolla. 

Rua.     See  Frazione. 


A  GLOSSARY  OF   ALPINE  TERMS.  clix 

Rucksack.     The  form  of  loose  bag  preferred  by  the  Tyrolese.     See  Art.  VI.  2. 

The  word  should  have  no  "  on  the  u. 
Riiti.     A  '  clearing'  in  a  forest  or  < backwoods,'  by  which  a  bit  of  meadow  or 

pasture  land  is  won.     Hence  'Riitli,'  a  small  clearing. 
Sa^na.     A  marshy  spot,  e.g.  Sagna  del  Colle. 
Sand  Cones.     See  Dirt  Cones. 

Sattel.     A  broad  and  well  defined  pass  or  *  saddle,'  e.g.  Roththalsattel. 
Scharte.     The  Tyrolese  term  for  a  <fenetre,'or  narrow  gap  in  a  ridge,  e.g. 

Tabarettascharte. 
Scheidegrg".     A  ridge  c  dividing '  two  valleys. 
Schrund.     A  crevasse. 
Schwendl.     See  Riiti  :    the  verb  is  still  used  to  mean  the  clearing  away  in 

spring,  on  a  mountain  pasture,  of  the  rubbish  which  has  fallen  on  it  since  the 

preceding  summer. 
Screes.     See  Geroll. 
Sella.     See  Sattel. 
Senn.     A  cheese-maker. 

Sennhiitte.     The  hut  wherein  dwells  a  cheese-maker  in  summer  on  the  *  alp.' 
Seracs.     A  stage  in   the  process  of  cheese-making — viz.  the  cheese  made  from 

'  petit  lait '  or  whey  (<  serum  ').     Saussure  (§§  1975  and  2054)  tells  us  that 

this  cheese  is  compressed  into  cubes  in  rectangular  boxes,  and  that  these  so 

resembled  the  creamy  blocks  of  neve  cut  into  squares  by  the  crevasses  formed 

in  their  downward  course  that  the  natives  of  Chamonix  applied  this  cheese 

term  to  this  particular  state  of  the  neve.     Nowadays   the  term   *  seracs '  is 

generally  (though   inaccurately)  used  of  the  ice  pinnacles  formed  in  the  icefall 

of  a  glacier. 
Serra.     A  narrow  defile  {serret)  in  a  valley  ;  also  an  elongated  mountain  range 

(serre). 
Sex.     A  rock  (saxum),  e.g.  Notre  Dame  du  Sex.     Probably  identical  with  the 

forms  '  Scesa '  and  *  Scez.' 
Seybuch.      See  Alpbuch.      '  Seyen '  is   the  Bernese   Oberland   term  for  the 

determining  how  many  cows  an  '  alp '  can  support  during  the  summer. 
Snow  Line.     The  point  at  which  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  summer  is  exactly 

balanced  by  the  fall  of  snow  in  winter  ;  it  varies  considerably  according  to  the 

steepness  of  the  mountain  slope,  its  exposure,  &c. 
Speck.     Bacon. 
Speicher.     A  hut  on  the  *  alp  '  in  which  cheeses  are  stored  before  being  taken 

down  to  the  valley :  it  generally  stands  on  six  low  stone  pillars,   so  as  to 

keep  the  mice  out. 
Staffel.     One  of  the  horizontal  strips  into  which  the  *  alp '  is  divided,  so  that 

cows  by  shifting  their  quarters  may  obtain  constant  supplies  of  fresh  grass 

during  the  summer. 
Steigeisen.     See  Crampons. 
Stoss.     The  amount  of  pasture  required  to  support  one  cow  for  the  summer  on 

the  '  alp. ' 
Striations.     The  deeply  graven  lines  on  rock  slabs,  especially  those  which  have 

formed  the  bed  of  a  glacier  ;  they  are  caused  by  the  boulders  or  stones  that  are 

imprisoned  between  the  ice  and  rock,  and  act  as  graving  tools. 
Stube.      The    *  keeping-room,'    '  stove '   room,    or   main  room  in  an   Alpine 

dwelling-house  :  and  thus  *  Gaststube '  is  the  best  room  given  up  to  '  con- 

sommateurs '  or  guests. 
Stunlung.     The  estimate  of  the  number  of  cows  that  can  be  supported  by  an 

*  alp '  during  the  summer. 


Clx  INTRODUCTION. 

Stutz.  A  mountain  slope  along  which  a  steeply  mounting  path  is  carried,  e.g. 
Sandigenstutz,  Lungenstutz. 

Sust.  A  shelter  in  general  (under  an  overhanging  boulder,  or  a  hut),  but 
especially  applied  to  a  hut  for  customs  officials,  e.g.  Susten,  in  the  Rh6ne 
valley.     The  French  form  is  '  souste '  and  the  Italian  '  susta. ' 

Talancia.  A  very  steep  slope  of  snow  or  ice  that  never  melts  ;  more  par- 
ticularly the  strip  of  snow  or  ice  in  a  steep  couloir  or  gully. 

Thalweg.  The  bed  of  a  stream  in  the  mountain  valley  ;  the  stream  has  eaten 
its  way  through  the  slopes  above  it,  and  thus  its  bed  seems  to  resemble  a 
'  valley  path. ' 

Tobel.     A  deep-cut  ravine  in  the  mountain-side,  like  a  '  Graben. ' 

Toumple  or  Temple.  Properly  the  deepest  part  of  a  river  bed  ;  then  any  deep 
hollow  or  gulf.  It  is  masculine,  so  that,  though  the  word  occurs  in  Dauphine, 
it  is  doubtful  if  it  explains  the  name  of  the  '  Col  de  la  Temple. ' 

Tourmente.      A  blizzard  in  the  mountains.     See  Guxe. 

Tsante.  A  patois  word  meaning  a  gently  inclined  slope  {e.g.  Tsanteleina)  as 
opposed  to  a  great  wall,  'granta  parei.'  See  vol.  i.  p.  275  of  the  new  edition 
of  the  '  Alpine  Guide. ' 

Ueberhang.  An  overhanging  bit  of  snow,  or  !  corniche  ; '  also  applied  to  over- 
hanging rocks. 

XTja.     Patois  form  of  '  Aiguille,'  used  in  the  Graian  Alps,  e.g.  Uja  di  Mondrone. 

Vanoise.  The  wind  which  blows  over  the  Mont  Cenis  from  the  Vanoise 
glaciers,  in  Savoy. 

Vastera  (Maritime  Alps).  An  enclosed  space  or  '  corral '  for  the  cows  at  night. 
In  the  S.  valleys  of  the  Maritime  Alps  the  word  '  gias '  (which  otherwise 
has  the  same  meaning  as  '  Vastera ')  signifies  such  enclosed  spaces  for  goats 
and  sheep  only.  See  the  '  Bollettino  '  of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  for  1897, 
p.  223  n. 

Vedretta,  or  Vadret.  The  term  applied  to  a  glacier  in  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  Swiss,  &c,  Alps  (Engadine,  Valtellina,  and  Val  di  Fassa). 

Verglas.  A  thin  film  of  ice  on  smooth,  inclined  rock  slabs  ;  it  is  due  to  the 
freezing  in  the  night  of  a  trickle  of  water. 

Villa  (Italian).  The  chief  or  '  church '  hamlet  of  a  'commune,'  e.g.  Villa  di 
Lozio. 

Vire.  A  rock  ledge  on  a  wall  which  often  enables  that  wall  to  be  traversed,  or 
helps  the  traveller  to  turn  some  obstacle  on  the  ridge  above. 

Voralp  and  Vorsass.  Originally  the  mountain  slopes  between  the  dwelling- 
houses  in  an  Alpine  valley  and  the  '  alp '  or  mountain  pasture  proper  were 
owned  in  common  ;  now  this  portion  is  generally  owned  by  individuals.  In 
either  case  these  words  mean  the  pasture  grazed  by  the  cows  in  spring 
before  they  go  up  to  the  '  alp '  proper.     See  XVXaiensass. 

Wang.  A  steep  grass  slope  as  opposed  to  'Wand,'  which  is  of  rock,  e.g.  the 
Maienwang,  between  the  Grimsel  Pass  and  the  Rhone  Glacier  Hotel.  See  G. 
Studer's  '  Das  Panorama  von  Bern,'  p.  19  n. 

Weiler.     A  hamlet  of  a  'commune.'     Like  Frazione  and  Rua. 

Wildheu.  Properly  the  grass  or  hay  gathered  by  the  first  comer  on  mountain 
slopes  far  from  any  mountain  pasture,  and  so  visited  only  by  the  poorer 
natives  who  have  not  enough  hay  and  no  means  of  buying  more.  The  word 
also  applies  to  the  grass  or  hay  got  above  a  frequented  mountain  pasture, 
which  in  this  case  is  a  perquisite  of  the  f  Aelpler  '  who  take  the  trouble  to 
bring  it  down,  and  can  not  be  taken  by  any  one  else. 

Zieger.  The  cheese  made  from  whey,  which  is  known  in  French-speaking 
districts  as  '  seracs. ' 


INDEX. 


Ablation,  cxxvi 

Accidents,  xli-xliii 

Adamello,  lxvii,  lxxii 

Aelpler,  lxiv-lxv 

Aletsch  glacier,  Great,  cxxix-cxxx 

Algau,  lxxx 

Allmend,  Iv,  lviii 

Alluvium,  ancient,  lxxxv 

Aim,  lviii 

Aimer,  Christian,  Ivii 

'  Alpargatas,'  xlvi 

Alpfahrt,  Ixiii 

Alpregister,  lix 

Alps,  Central,  xx ;  Eastern,  xxii,  cxxxi ; 

Western,  xix 
'Alps,'  lvii-lxv,  cvi-cvii ;  regulations,  lix 
Altels  avalanche,  cxxxii 
Annuals,  cxii 
Arctic  regions,  cxix-cxxi 
Arves,  Aiguilles  d',  lxxxiii 
Avalanches,  cxxxi-cxxxiii 


Bach i  glacier,  cxxix 
Bagnes,  Val  de,  cxxxi 
Bees,  cxvi-cxviii 
Beisassen,  lv 
Belalp,  lxi 
Berarde,  La,  liv 
Bergschrund,  cxxv 
Bies  glacier,  cxxxii 
Binnenthal,  lxix 
Birds,  c 
Blackenalp,  lxi 
Blanc,    Mont,    xxiv, 

cxxxviii 
Blaugletscherli,  cxxix 
Books,  List  of,  cxl 
Boots,  xxx iv 
Bosco,  xxviii 
Bouquetins,  xcix 

I.  xl 
Brenva  glacier,  cxxx 


lxxii,    lxxxix,    cix, 


Brienz,  lv,  Ixxix 
'  Bundner  Schiefer,'  lxxiii 
Burgergemeinden,  lvi 
Burglauenen,  lvi 
Butterflies,  cii,  cxvii-cxviii 


Calfeisenthal,  Ixv 

Canaria,  Val,  Ixxvi 

Carriages,  xxv 

Cenis,  '  alps  '  on,  lxv 

'  Chaises  k  porteurs,'  xxv 

Chalets,  lxiv-lxv 

Chamois,  xcix;  hunting,  xxxii,  lv 

Chamonix,  xlvi,  cix 

Cheese,  xl,  lxiii-lxiv,  cxxv 

Chestnuts,  cv 

Church  town,  liii 

Citizenship,  lvi 

Climate,  ciii  sqq. ,  cviii  sqq. 

Clothing,  xxxiii 

Club  huts,  1-li 

Clubs,  Alpine,  xxxvii  note,  xlvii,  1-li 

Communes,  lv-lvi 

Coniferous  trees,  cv 

Crampons,  xxxvi 

Cr&te  Seche  lake,  cxxxi 

Crevasses,  cxxiv-cxxv 

Crystalline  rocks,  lxvii 

Custom  houses,  xvi 

Dangers  in  the  Alps,  xxxvii,  xl  sqq. 

Davos,  xxviii 

Deciduous  trees,  civ 

Diablerets,  lxxxiii 

Dietary,  xxxi,  xl 

Difficulties  in  the  Alps,  xxxvii 

Diligences,  xxiv 

Dolomites,  lxix,  Ixxvii,  xcvi  note,  CXXIX 


Eggs,  xl 
Einsiedeln,  Ixii 


clxii 


INTRODUCTION. 


Einwohnergemeinden,  lvi 

Emmenthal,  lxii,  lxiv 

Engstlenalp,  lxi-lxii  • 

Ennetmarchtalp,  lxi 

Equipment,  xxxiii 

Erratic  boulders,  lxxxi-lxxxiii,  xciii-xciv 

Expenses  of  a  journey,  xxx 

Extrapost,  xxv 


Fee,  lxi 

Fersina  glen,  xxix 

Festivals  in  the  Alps,  lxiv-lxv 

Firn,  cxxiii 

Firs,  cvi 

Flowers,  cvi-cvii,  cxv  sqq. 

Flysch,  lxxix-lxxx 

Fohn  wind,  ex 

Forests,  lv,  lvii,  cvi,  exxxiii 

Formazza,  Val,  xxviii 

Fruitier,  lxiv 

Furka  Pass,  lxxviii 


Gemeinde,  lv 

Gemmi  Pass,  exxxii 

Geology,  lxvi  sqq. 

Gepatsch  glacier,  exxx 

German  colonies,  xxviii 

Gervais,  St.,  exxxi 

Gi^troz  glacier,  exxxi 

Glacial  Age,  xciii-xevi,  exxviii ; 

cvii 
Glaciers,  xxxviii,  cvii,  cxxiii  sqq. 

motion  of,  exxiii-exxiv,   exxvi 

exxx-exxxi 
Glarnisch  glacier,  exxix 
Glarus,  lxxxi,  lxxxviii 
Gleckstein,  lxiii 
Gletscheralp,  lix,  lxiii 
Glossary  of  Alpine  terms,  cliii 
Gorner  glacier,  exxx 
Gotthard  Pass,  St.;  lxxii-lxxiii 
Gouter,  Aig.  du,  exxxi 
Gries  glacier,  exxix  ;   Pass,  lxxviii 
Grindelwald,    xxxv-xxxvi,    xlvi,  lii  note, 

liv,    lvi— lxiii,    lxxix,     exxix  ;       Lower 

glacier,  exxx 
Grodenerthal,  liv 
Grundlauinen,  exxxii 
Gruyere,  lxiv 
Guides,  xxxv,  xliv  sqq. 
Gurgler  glacier,  exxx-exxxi 
Gydisdorf,  liv 


region, 


exxxn  ; 

exxviii, 


Hintersassen,  lv 
Hohsand  glacier,  exxix 
Homesteads,  lv,  lvii 
Horses,  xxv 
Humidity  of  the  air,  ex 


Ibex,  xcix 

Ice  axes,  xxxv 

Icefalls,  exxv 

Inconveniences  of  Alpine  travelling,  xxxii, 

xxxviii 
Inns,  xxx-xxxi,  xlviii-1 
Interlaken,    monastery   of,    liv,    lvii-lviii 

note,  lx 

'Jodeln,'  lxv 

Jungfrau,  xxiv,  lxxxviii,  exxxii 


Habkernthal,  lxxxi-lxxxii 

Hasleberg,  lxii 

'  Herrschaft,  Auf  der,'  lvii 


Kuhrechte,  lx,  lxii,  lxiv 
Kuhreihen,  lxv 
Kuhstosse,  lix— lxi 


Ladin,  xxix 

Lager,  lxiii 

Lakes  in  the  Alps,  lxxxiv,  xcii,  xciv,  cii, 

exxviii-exxix,  exxxi 
Lammergeier,  ci 

Languages  in  the  Alps,  xxviii  sqq. 
Larch,  cvi 

Lauterbrunnen,  lix,  lxi,  lxxix,  xcix 
Letters,  xvii 

Life  in  an  Alpine  valley,  lii  sqq. 
Litanies,  lxv 
Luggage,  xvi-xvii 
Lukmanier  Pass,  lxxii,  lxxvi,  lxxviii 


Macugnaga,  lix 

Maiensass,  lvii 

Majolica,  lxxx 

Maloja  Pass,  xcii 

Man  in  the  Alps  of  old,  lxxxiv,  xevi 

Maps,  cli 

Marjelen  lake,  exxxi 

Marmots,  c 

Matterhorn,  xxiv,  lxvii 

Mayens,  lvii 

Measures,  xvii 

Megglisalp,  lviii 

Meije,  lxxii 

Meiringen,  lxi-lxii 

Mer  de  Glace,  exxx 

Mettenberg,  lxiii 

Miage  glacier,  exxx 

Milk,  xl,  lxiii— lxiv,  exxv 

Monev,  xvi 


INDEX. 


clxiii 


Monzonite,  lxxvii 

Moraines,  lxxxv,  cxxvii-cxxviii 

Morschach,  cxxxii  note 

Moulins,  cxxv 

Mountaineering,  xxxvii  sqq.  ;  dangers  of, 
xl  ;  difficulties  of,  xxxvii  ;  inconveni- 
ences of,  xxxviii  ;  solitary,  xliv  ;  winter, 
xxviii  :  without  guides,  xliv 

Mules,  xxv 

Miirren,  lx 

Music,  lxv 


NAGELFLUH,  lxx,  lxxxiv,  xcv 
Neve\  xxxviii,  cxxiii,  cxxv,  cxxix 
Nufcnen  Pass,  lxxiv,  lxxvi,  lxxviii 


Obersaxen,  xxviii 
Olive  trees,  ciii 
Ormonts  glen,  lxxxi-lxxxii 
Oxford,  lvi  note 


Paradis  glaciers,  Grand,  cxxx 

Passports,  xv 

Pasterze  glacier,  cxxx 

Pastures,  lvii-lxv,  cvi-cvii 

Pedestrians,  xxxii  sqq. 

'  Pensions,'  xxx 

Perennials,  cxii 

Pfander,  lxiv 

Photography,  cxxxiii 

Pines,  cvi 

Plan  of  journey,  xxvi 

Polenta,  xl 

Pontresina,  lxi 

Poor  relief,  lv— lvi 

Porters,  xlv 

Post  offices,  xvii 

Prayers  on  the  'alps,'  lxv 

Precautions  for  health,  xl 

Pressure  of  the  air,  cviii 

Provisions,  tinned,  xxxi,  1 

Pyrenees,  xlvi,  cxvi 


Railways,  xviii,  xxiv,  xxxi 

Ran  da,  cxxxii 

'  Ranz  des  Vaches,'  lxv 

'  Rauchwacke,'  lxxvi,  lxxxvii 

Regelation,  cxxiii 

Reschen  Scheideck,  xcii 

Rheinwald,  xxviii 

Rhone  glacier,  cxxx 

Riding,  xxv 

Rigi,  lxx,  lxxxiv,  lxxxviii 

Rivers  in  the  Alps,  cxxviii-cxxix 

Rofel  alp,  lix 


|  Romonsch,  xxix 

!  Rope,  xxxvi,  xli-xliii 

|  Rousse,  T6te,  glacier,  cxxxi 

i  Routes  from  London  to  the  Alps,  xviii 

'  Rucksack,  xxxv 

I  Rutor  lake,  cxxxi 

Saas,  lxi 

Safien,  xxviii 

Salles,  Pointe  de,  xciii 

Sambtiseralp,  lviii 

Sandalp,  ferii 

Santis,  lviii,  cxxix 
I    Sauris  glen,  xxix 

Scaglia,  lxxx 

Scheideggalp,  lix,  lxi,  Ixiii 
I    '  Schistes  lustr^es,'  lxxiii 

Schrattenkalk,  lxxx 

Schonegg,  lvii 
i    Scopi,  lxxiv,  lxxviii 

Season  for  travelling  in  the  Alps,  xxvii- 
xxviii 

Senn,  lxiv 

SeYacs,  cxxv 

Sette  Comuni,  xxix 

Settlements  in  the  Alps,  early,  lxii-lxiv 

Seybuch,  lix 

Sgrischus  lake,  cii 

Sickness,  mountain,  xxxix 

Silt,  lxxxv,  cxxviii 

Slavonic,  xxix 

Snow  Line,  cxxii 

Speer,  lxx,  lxxxiv 

Staffel,  lxiii 

Staublauinen,  cxxxii 

Steamers,  xxiv 

Steigeisen,  xxxvi 

Steinalp,  Ixii 

Steinbocks,  xcix 

Striations,  cxxviii 


Tables,  glacier,  cxxv* 
Telegraphs,  xvii 
Telephones,  xvii 
Telephotography,  cxxxi x 
Th^odule  Pass,  St.,  cviii-cix,  cxi 
Time,  xviii 

Tourmentes,  xliii,  cxxii 
Tonalite,  lxvii,  lxxii 


Unspunnkn,  lvii 
Unteraar  glacier,  cxxx 
Urnerboden,  lxi 


Valley,  Life  in  an  Alpine,  lii  v?v- 
Valleys,  kinds  of  Alpine,  xci-xcii 


clxiv 


INTRODUCTION. 


Vals,  xxviii 

Vegetation  in  the  Alps,  ciii  sqq. ,  ex  sqq. 

Vernagt  glacier,  exxx-exxxi 

Verrucano,  lxxv 

Viescher  glacier,  exxx 

Villages,  origin  of  Alpine,  liii-liv 

Vines,  civ 

Viso,  Monte,  lxvii,  exxix 

'  Voralp,'  lvii 

'  Vorsass,'  lvii 


Walking,  xxiv,  xxxii,  xxxvii 
Weights,  xvii-xviii 


Weissenfluh  family,  von,  lxii 

Wendelin,  St.,  Ixv 

Wengernalp,  lix,  lxi 

Wetterhorn,  lxiii,  exxxii 

'  Wildheu,'  lxiii 

Winds,  ex 

Wine,  xxxi,  civ 

Winter,  xxviii,  xxxvi,  Hi.  exxiv 


Zasenberg,  lix,  lxiii 
Zermatt,  lxi,  cii 
Zoology,  xcviii 


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